Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Concept
|
a mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions including: memory reasoning and using and understanding language.
a unit of knowledge |
|
|
Category
|
a defined division/ group in a classification system that have something in common
|
|
|
What is the usefulness of categories
|
-provide us with lots of information
-allows you to make inferences -allows you to understand behavior that may seem strange -BUT it leads to generalizations/ stereotypes |
|
|
Definitional Approach
|
-an item is a member of the category if it meets the definition of that category.
Example: a shape with four equal sides is a square |
|
|
What are the problems with the definitional approach
|
-it requires outside knowledge
-it is subjective -lots of things don't have the same features for all members (most fish have gills. sharks are categorized as fish but they do not have gills) |
|
|
Prototype Approach
|
-averaging together category members we have seen before
-based on comparing object to a standard -prototype is not a member of the category |
|
|
Prototypicality
|
variation in a category
|
|
|
Family Resemblance
|
things in a category resemble each other in a number of ways. But there is no definite criteria that they must meet in order to be in the category.
|
|
|
Definitional Approach vs. Family Resemblance
|
can be contrasted because the definitional approach requires a certain criteria to be met and family resemblance does not.
|
|
|
Experiment of Prototype Approach-
Good/Bad Examples of a Category, Rosch 1975 |
-participants given category title (furniture or bird)
-list 50 members in the category -rate the members 1-7 based on how well they represent the category Bird Example: (name 50) robin, sparrow, penguin |
|
|
Experiment-
Prototypical Objects Named First, Mervis 1976 |
-again participants had to list as many as possible
-prototypical objects were named first Example: Fruits (banana would probably be named before kiwi because it is more prototypical) |
|
|
Using the Sentence Verification Technique, Smith 1974
|
-found that prototypical objects verified more rapidly
-participants were read a statement and had to state whether the statement was true (yes) or false (no) |
|
|
Exemplar Approach
|
-comparing to an object that you have experienced in the past.
-works best for smaller categories -exemplars ARE part of the category |
|
|
Levels of Categories
|
information organized hierarchically
3 different levels |
|
|
Superordinate Level
|
the highest level- most abstract least information
|
|
|
Basic Level
|
broadest level but has the most useful information
*it is special because it is the level where above which information is lost and below which information is gained |
|
|
Subordinate Level
|
bottom level- the least abstract level but contains the MOST information
|
|
|
Example of these Levels
|
Furniture
table chair bed kitchen dining single full |
|
|
How does knowledge effect categorization- Coley
|
-asked participants to walk around campus and name the 44 different plants that he tagged as specific as possible
-75% of the answers were: tree the little knowledge they had on the plants made their answers more basic |
|
|
Bird Experts and Non Experts- Tanaka and Taylor 91'
|
-participants were both experts and non experts
-showed them pictures and had them name the birds -experts gave mostly subordinate answers -non experts gave mostly basic answers |
|
|
Collins and Quillian's Semantic Network Model
|
allows you to predict how fast information will be received and explains how associations are made.
"nodes" and "links" Exceptions are stored at the lower nodes- example birds can fly- ostrich is a bird but cannot fly |
|
|
Cognitive Economy
|
properties of a category are shared by many members and are stored at higher nodes in the network
Example: "can fly" property is stored at the node for bird rather than canary |
|
|
How is Sentence Verification used to test this model?
|
which takes longer to answer?
a. a canary is an animal b. a canary is a bird A should take longer because canary and bird are more closely related. Canary to bird is shorter than canary to animal. |
|
|
Spreading Activation
|
whatever you think about activates other nodes
it is easier to think of related things; they are primed |
|
|
Lexical Decision Task
|
Used to test spreading activation theory-
-have participants say as fast as possible whether the stimulus is a word or non word. -the results showed that the fastest responses were when the stimuli were associated |
|
|
Some results from this task did not fit
|
responses were faster to say pig is an animal
animal mammal pig (but it jumped over an entire node) |
|
|
Spreading Activation Model- Collins and Luftus
|
information is not organized hierarchically but instead the size of the link between the nodes indicates the semantic relatedness
|
|
|
Mental Imagery
|
experiencing sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
Example: tiger woods imagining planning shots that stimulate the mind |
|
|
Research of Visual Imagery in History- Wundt's View
|
said that images are a basic element of consciousness along with sensations and feelings. there is a link between thought and imagery
|
|
|
Research of Visual Imagery in History- Galton's View
|
asked people to describe the breakfast table they ate at.
-the problem was that people were not visualizing what their table looked like, just what a basic breakfast table looks like asked about: illumination/ definition/ colors |
|
|
Behaviorism Kills Imagery Debate- Watson's View
|
said that studying imagery was unproductive because they are invisible to everyone besides the person seeing. you cannot observe what you are studying
|
|
|
Reaction Time
|
when imagery research reemerged they used reaction time as an objective measure of visual imagery
|
|
|
Mental Rotation Experiment- Shepard & Meltzer 71'
|
participants were shown two cubic objects
asked if they were the same object just rotated or if they were two completely different objects found that: the greater the angle the longer it took |
|
|
Mental Rotation Experiment- Cooper and Shepard 73'
|
used letters instead of cubes like in previous experiment.
-asked participants to determine if the figure was mirror reversed found that: longest reaction time occurred at 180* -image is in fact rotated in the mind -image is treated as a real object(perception) |
|
|
Paired Associate Learning- Palvio 1971
|
participants were given a list of nouns to study
-tested by being told the first word in the pair and had to recall the second word they studied used concrete and abstract nouns found that memory was better for the concrete nouns |
|
|
Conceptual Peg Hypothesis
|
the idea that concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto.
Example. it is easier to remember truck because you can visualize it, where as the noun "beauty" is harder to visualize |
|
|
Kosslyn's Mental Scanning
|
participants created mental images and then scanned them into their minds
-had them focus on one part of the boat and then asked to look for another part of the boat and to press the "true" button when they got there. if imagery is spatial then it should take longer for them to find the parts that are located farther. (he found this to be true) |
|
|
Mental Map Study
|
created a fictional island with 7 locations and had participants memorize those locations
-told participants to mentally travel to these locations -21 trips total -wanted to see how long each trip would take found that: reaction time increased as distance increased and that reaction time increased as the map size increase |
|
|
Propositional Representation
|
relationships can be represented by abstract symbols such as an equation
"The Cat is Under The Table" |
|
|
Spatial/Depictive Representation
|
involves a spatial layout represented by a picture
Example: the cat actually under the table |
|
|
Ill- Defined Problems
|
-no clear solution
-no method or correct answer -usually common/ everyday problems Example: Relationship problems or being a good person |
|
|
Well- Defined Problems
|
-a clear method to solve
-information is present Example: an algebra problem or the slashed tire example |
|
|
Gestalt Approach to Problem Solving
|
-said it is a process involving restructuring
-changing your representation of the problem |
|
|
Insight
|
sudden realization of the solution
|
|
|
Incubation Period
|
Putting information together/ changing perspective right before you solve the problem
Example: the chimps using the boxes to try and get to the bananas |
|
|
Experiment- Insight and Non Insight Problems, Metcalfe and Wiebe 1987
|
-had participants make warmth judgements every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution.
-the purpose was to demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non problems |
|
|
Insight Problems
|
-solution is sudden
-no clean method used -harder to monitor closeness to answer (bad at predicting progress) |
|
|
Non Insight Problems
|
-algebra problems
-clear method -good at predicting progress -warmth ratings moved slowly towards hot |
|
|
Gestalt Obstacles to Problem Solving
|
fixation and functional fixedness
|
|
|
Fixation
|
focusing on one aspect and keeps you from solving the problem
|
|
|
Functional Fixedness
|
restricting the use of an object to its familiar function
Example: Candle problem |
|
|
Behaviorist View of Problem Solving
|
learning stimulus- response associations
law of exercise- practice increases strength law of effect- if effective in the past strength increases |
|
|
Information Processing Approach- Newell & Simon
|
created a computer program designed to simulate human thinking
-problem solving involves search and not just insight -used for solving well defined problems -sub goals |
|
|
Means Ends Analysis
|
creating subgoals to make it more manageable to get to solution
|
|
|
Problem Space
|
all strategies you might use to get to a solution
|
|
|
Tower of Hanoi Problem
|
3 disks that you have to move from one side to the other but you have to follow the rules in order to complete it sucessfully
|
|
|
Hill Climbing Heuristic
|
operators that moves closest to the goal
look like your closer to a solution but you're not stuck in a "local maxima" you have to back to fix something on order to get to the right solution |
|
|
Working Backwards Heuristic
|
water lillie problem
|
|
|
Analogical Problem Solving
|
-using the solution of a similar problem to guide the solution of a new problem
changing perspective "restructuring" |
|
|
Example of Analogical Problem Solving- Dunkers Radiation Problem
|
-when just read the problem verbally only 10% could solve it
-when told the fortress story along with the problem 30% could solve it -giving them the hint that you could use the story to solve the problem- 75% could solve it |
|
|
How Experts Solve Problems
|
their knowledge is better organized an easily accessed when needed
experts spend more time analyzing the problem but it takes less time to answer the question novices jump right into the problem and end up having to start over |
|
|
Chi et al. Physics Problems
|
group the problems that go together
experts- said conservation of energy (deep structure) novices- said sliding down incline (surface features) |
|
|
Reasoning
|
process of drawing conclusions
|
|
|
Deductive Reasoning
|
a conclusion logically follows
|
|
|
Syllogisms
|
two statements called premises followed by a conclusion.
useful for understanding if people think logically |
|
|
Validity in Syllogisms
|
can be valid but not true
|
|
|
Aristotle's Perfect Syllogism
|
all A are B
all B are C then all A are C |
|
|
Errors in Reasoning
|
non perfect syllogisms have a 70-80% error rate
depending on whether abstract or real world terms are used |
|
|
Belief Bias
|
if something is true or agrees with your beliefs then you are more likely to judge it as being valid
|
|
|
Watson Selection Task- Cards
|
used to understand why people make errors in conditional reasoning
-given four cards and rules -asked which cards they had to turn over to test the correctness of the rule results: no one got it right |
|
|
Falsification Principle
|
to test a rule you must look for a situation that would falsify the rule
|
|
|
Confirmation Bias
|
selectively looking for information that conforms to our hypothesis and ignoring the information that argues against it
|
|
|
Inductive Reasoning
|
based on observations
conclusions are only suggested we bring in outside information prediction of what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past Ex. if whether is usually worse in the spring at ramapo then we say it is likely for next spring to be the same way. |
|
|
Illusory Correlation Heuristic
|
correlation doesnt actually exist or isnt as strong as you would think it is
example: i only forget my pencil when we have a test |
|
|
Representativeness Heuristic
|
perceived characteristics of a group determines whether you think something is part of the same group
Farmer/ Librarian Example. ignoring the base rate and just listening to characteristics |
|
|
How does the Framing Effect Affect Decision Making
|
decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated
|
|
|
Affective Forecasting Error
|
people are bad at predicting their emotions
|
|
|
Atmosphere Effect
|
the words "all" "some" or "none" in premises of a syllogism create an overall mood that can influence the evaluation of the validity of the conclusion
|
