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104 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Subordinate Level (Rosch & Mervis, 1975) |
The most specific concepts. (i.e. type of dog, mansion). |
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Basic Level (Rosch & Mervis, 1975) |
- More specific ways to classify something. - A basic concept will have more features than a superordinate concept. (i.e. dog, or single-family home) |
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Superordinate Level (Rosch & Mervis, 1975) |
The most general way to classify something. (i.e. animal, home) |
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Characteristic of basic-level categories? |
More specific features relative to the superordinate concept |
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Spreading Activation Model (Collins & Loftus) |
- Connections are based on personal experience and are not necessarily logical. - Properties are linked to concepts & other properties. - The longer the link b/w two units, the weaker the association. |
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Sentence Verification Task |
A simple sentence is presented and a y/n decision must me made regarding the truth of the statement. - A robin is a bird - A robin is a mammal - A robin is an animal |
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What happens in the spreading activation model during a sentence verification task? |
When you hear “bird” and “animal”, thisactivates the elements in memory that correspond to those words. The activation spreads out along all linesconnected to the elements. In order torespond “true”, the activation from each element must meet on the same line. (canary > animal takes longer than canary > bird) |
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Describe the experiment by Meyer and Schvaneveldt that supported the spreading activation model results. How did they support? |
- Illuminated the effects of priming by measuring response times as people made lexical decisions (determining whether or not two letter strings presented simultaneously were both words). - The key finding was that response time was faster for related words than for unrelated words, consistent with the concept of spreading activation. |
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Lexical Decision Task |
- Subjects must decide whether a letter string represents a proper English word. - Measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or non-words. |
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Hierarchical Model of Semantic Memory (Collins & Quillian) |
- Information is stored in categories. - Categories are logically related to each otherin a hierarchy. - Information stored at one level of the hierarchyis not repeated at other levels. |
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What is property inheritance?
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(ex. Red cars have four wheels since cars have four wheels.) |
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Describe what happens in the hierarchical model during a sentence verification task.
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Suppose the statement is, “A canary cansing.” When you hear, “A canary”, thisactivates the canary category in memory. You then scan the properties of the canary category for relevantinformation. If you find it, you stopthe search process and respond. |
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Describe the problems with the hierarchical model.
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Does not aid in the following:
1. Typicality effect 2. Reversal of the effect 3. Explanation of “false” responses |
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Typicality Effect
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People are faster to respond to usual or typical members (i.e. bird: robin over penguin) |
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Understand the Feature model of semantic memory. Describe the two stages of the model.
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1. Global feature comparison: process all featured of the subject; comparison of characteristic features
2. Defining features: create comparison question; comparison of defining features. |
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What would happen during a sentence verification task according to the Feature model.
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You would retrieve the concepts - e.g. A robin is a bird - Retrieve "robin" and "bird" |
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Defining Features |
Features that are absolutely essential to the meaning of the item. (i.e. robin: animal, has feathers, has red breast) |
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Characteristic Features |
Features that are descriptive, common, and frequent, but not essential to the meaning of the item. (i.e. robin: flies, perches in trees) |
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Advantage & Problem with the Feature Model |
Advantages: explains typicality effect, rejection of false sentences, provides explanation for category size effect. Problems: defining features semantic priming quick rejection of false sentences |
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What is a phoneme? |
Perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another. (i.e. p, b, d, & t in pad, pat, bad & bat) |
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What are some ways languages differ in their use of phonemes? |
The number of phonemically distinct vowels & consonants. Some languages have no phonemic tone or stress. |
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What is child-directed speech? How is it useful to infants? |
The speech that adults use when talking to babies and young children. Helps develop: - the ability to discriminate b/w different speech sounds - the ability to detect the boundaries b/w words in a stream of speech - the ability to recognize distinct clauses in a stream of speech |
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What is top-down processing? |
"Large chunk" processing: we form perceptions by starting with the larger concept and then working out way down to the finer details of it. Think big, and then work out the finer details. Start with words and then interpret phonemes. |
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What is bottom-up processing? |
"Small chunk" processing: we perceive elements by starting with the smaller, more fine details of that element and then building upward until we have a solid representation of it in our minds. Start with the details and then work your way up. Start with phonemes, work up to words. |
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What is the word-superiority effect? |
People have better recognition of letters presented within words than isolated letters and letters presented within non-word strings. |
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What is the phonemic restoration effect? |
Under certain conditions, sounds missing from a speech signal can be restored by the brain and may appear to be heard. |
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What does the phonemic restoration effect demonstrate about perception of phonemes? |
The phonemic restoration effect demonstrates that top-down processing is used to fill missing phonemes. |
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Distinguish between the phonological route (non-lexical) and the direct route (lexical) for reading. |
Phonological (non-lexical): the process by which the reader can "sound out" a written word. Direct route (lexical): skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone. |
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Surface dyslexia What types of words do people with this disorder have trouble with? What types of words can they read normally? How does this disorder demonstrate support for the existence of two routes for reading? |
Disruption of direct/lexical route, must sound things out. Can read non-words normally. Has trouble reading words that defy pronunciation rules. Evidence: Two Japanese languages; Kana vs. Kanji |
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Phonological dyslexia What types of words do people with this disorder have trouble with? What types of words can they read normally?How does this disorder demonstrate support for the existence of two routes for reading? |
Disruption of phonological/non-lexical route, must use direct route. Recognizes words visually. |
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Saccades |
The jumping movement made by your eyes while reading. |
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Fixations |
When the eyes rest at one location while reading. |
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Describe the typical findings regarding eye movements during reading. |
- Spaces - Jump past certain words - Unusual words - Surprise endings - Good readers vs. poor readers |
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"Perceptual Span" How is the moving window technique used to measure it? |
How much info you can take in in a glance. Window technique is used to measure it by determining the letters visible on either side of the fixation point. |
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Describe how these factors affect comprehension: - negatives - passive voice - ambiguity - schemas |
Negatives: harder to understand Passive Voice: Passive is harder to comprehend Ambiguity: slows down processing Schemas: help encode & store information |
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What is a garden path sentence? |
A grammatically correct sentence that starts in such a way that a reader is most likely to incorrect interpret in. (i.e. The old man the boat.) |
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Describe the two experiments by Swinney that examined the effects of ambiguity on comprehension. |
Divided Attention Task: Task 1: judge relatedness of two sentences; ambiguous words in one sentence, or unambiguous. Task 2: respond to /k/ sound. Reaction time was longer following ambiguous words. Divided Attention Task: Task 1: Judge relatedness of two sentences; ambiguous words in one sentence w/ context provided. Task 2: Lexical decision task right after ambiguous word. |
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Schema |
Mental framework for organizing knowledge |
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Bransford & Johnson (1973) that examined the effects of schemas and context on comprehension |
participants heard a long speech, conditioned beforehand with the title, no title, or title after. 2.8 ideas were remembered with no title, 5.8 title before, and 2.6 title after. Conclusion: schemas simplify info processes. |
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Anderson & Pichert, regarding the effect of schemas and perspective on memory |
Listened to a story about a house left empty on Thursdays. There were 72 points related to either a homebuyer or a burglar schema. Half were asked to read from homebuyer perspective, half from burglar perspective. Then performed distracting task for 12 minutes before recall. Then another 5 minute delay before recall, but participants were asked to think recall from the other perspective. Findings: Participants in changed schema group recalled 7% more points than first recall. Recall points linked to previous schema dropped. Participants that did not change groups recalled less than first trial. Conclusion: People encode information not relevant to their prevailing schema; schema influenced both encoding and retrieval. |
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What did Bartlett find in his participants' recall of the "War of the Ghosts" story? |
We remember fragments and use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memories. |
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Sulin & Dooling, regarding how prior knowledge impacts comprehension and memory. |
Read story with either Carol Harris or Helen Keller. Recall: she was deaf, dumb, and blind. People were more likely to recall statements from the story about Helen Keller if they were in the Helen Keller group. |
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Creativity |
Producing something that is both novel and appropriate |
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Divergent Production |
Number of unique responses Scored based on: - originality - total # responses - 3 categories of responses - amount of details |
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RAT |
Remote Associations Test - seeing three words and deciding what they have in common, seeing relationships among random items. |
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Consensual Assessment |
Based around measuring creativity using an assortment of judges, who assess creative works individually and in isolation. Then the views are collected and collated to establish an overall rating or measure. |
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4 Stages in Wallas's Stage View of Creativity |
- Preparation: we define the problem and gather any info the solution needs to account for, and set up criteria for verifying the solution's acceptability. - Incubation: We step back from the problem and let our minds contemplate and work it through. - Illumination: Ideas arise from the mind to provide the basis of a creative response. - Verification: One carries out activities to demonstrate whether or not what emerged during illumination satisfies the need and the criteria defined in the preparation stage. |
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Why does incubation seem to help? |
Incubation seems to help because it allows your mind to wander and it can lead to greater creativity. |
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What are the criticisms of Wallas's view? |
Not all stages are gone through, and creativity is not a linear step-by-step process. |
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Describe Rhodes's 4 dimensions of creativity. |
- Person: cognitive abilities, personality traits, and biographical experiences. - Process: the methodology that produces a creative product. - Press: the relationship of the creative person to the environment they are creating with. - Product: the communication of a novel and useful idea, concept, or theory. |
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Describe Amabile's componential model of creativity. |
The influences on creativity include three within-individual components: - Domain-relevant skills: having the appropriate knowledge, technical skills, and talent - Creativity-relevant processes: having the appropriate cognitive and personality traits - Intrinsic motivation: doing it because you want to, not for some external reward. |
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Discuss the involvement of the brain in creativity. |
When being creative, it involves reducing activation o the Executive Attention Network and increasing the activation of the Default and Salience networks. |
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Describe the role of each of the 3 brain networks. |
- Executive Attention Network: helps us laser focus on a particular task. Activated when we need to concentrate on complicated problems or pay attention to a task like reading, listening or talking. - Default Network: used for things like imagining future scenarios and remembering things that happened in the past. Helps construct mental images. - Salience Network: monitors our surroundings, as well as inside our brains. Switches between executive attention network and default network control. |
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What is a problem? |
Trying to reach a goal when the path is not immediately obvious. |
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Initial State |
Where you are at the start of the problem (i.e. having a flat tire). |
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Goal State |
Where you are trying to get to (i.e. having changed the flat tire). |
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Obstacles |
Things you have to overcome to reach the goal state. |
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Operations |
The rules for solving the problem. |
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Problem Space |
All possible states the problem could be in from initial state to goal state. |
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Well-defined problem |
Knowing what you need to do, but just a matter of getting there (i.e. doing a puzzle). |
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Ill-defined problem |
Having a starting point but not sure what to do to reach the goal state (i.e. writing an essay). |
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Knowledge rich problem |
Problems that require special knowledge to solve them. |
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Knowledge-lean problem |
Problems that do not require special knowledge to solve them. |
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What is a mental set? |
When you keep using the same solution even though there are simpler ones. |
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What is functional fixedness? How did Duncker study it? What can help overcome this? |
Seeing objects as having only their typical functions. Candle, box of tacks, ad matches. Use those objects to attach candle to wall so it won't drip. |
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Algorithm |
Try every possible solution until you find the one that works. Guaranteed to find solution. Practical only if problem space is small. |
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Heuristic |
Tricks for solving things. Rule of thumb Shortcut to solution Not guaranteed to work |
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Hill-climbing |
Choosing the option that moves you toward your goal. 3 hobbits and 3 Orcs. |
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Means-ends analysis |
Setting up sub-goals Compare current state with goal state Determine how to reduce the space |
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Generate-test |
Generate potential solution Test to see if it works Repeat until solution is found (Truthteller problem) |
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Representativeness Heuristic & example |
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how similar it is to the population it came from. (ex. HHHHTTTT or HTHHTTHT) Pick the latter because the brain recognizes it as random. |
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Base-rate neglect & relation to representativeness heuristic |
People ignore rate of occurrence. Relative to representativeness heuristic because people focus on similar characteristics and ignore statistics. |
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Conjunction Fallacy & relation to representativeness heuristic |
Failure to realize that the probability of 2 events both occurring cannot exceed the probability of either one occurring alone. Judgments are instead based on representativeness. |
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How can we reduce the conjunction fallacy? |
1. Restate the question 2. Use frequencies |
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Availability Heuristic & example |
To judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind. (i.e. words that start with /k/ vs. words with /k/ as the third letter). |
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Experimental studies that examined the availability heuristic |
- Higgins et al. (1977): had people learn list of neutral words; one group had 4 positive characteristic traits, the other had 4 negative characteristic traits. They then read a story and had people evaluate the character. Positive words > rated higher. Negative words > rated lower. - Hornstein et a. (1975): decide whether you're going to help or be selfish. Had people listen to radio programs, one on crime, one on selflessness. Selflessness > helpful, crime > selfish. - Tversky & Kahneman (1973): making types of names available will influence outcome. |
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Describe how recency, distinctiveness, frequency, and depth of processing/emotion influence how available something is. |
- Recency: the more recently you heard something, the more easily it comes to mind. - Distinctiveness: the more something stands out, the more easily available it becomes. - Frequency: the more we are exposed to something, the more likely we are to recall it. We are more likely to think it is true (i.e. shark attacks). - Emotion: the more we can connect to something, the more easily available it becomes. |
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Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic & Example |
Making a first approximation of a solution and adjusting that value to fit new information. (i.e. 1*2*3*4*5*6*7*8 vs. 8*7*6*5*4*3*2*1) Answers differ due to anchor adjustments. |
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Describe the experiments on the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic. |
- Tversky & Kahnemann (1974): spinning wheel gave participants random number b/w 1-100. Required to use that number to make judgement about something they probably didn't know much about. #30- Is ... higher or lower? %- Then gave actual number. (i.e. if got 10, they guessed 25%). The number they spun became their anchor. - Ariely et al. (2003): had auction with students. Everybody wrote down last 2 numbers of their SSN. Gave last item up for bid. Would you pay said number for item? How high would you go? SSN served as anchor. |
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Describe how the framing of a question influences people's responses. |
Wording of a question can influence the decision. People can adopt risk-averse strategy. |
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Discuss the findings from studies using gambling questions and the "disease outbreak" question. |
A. 200 people will definitely be saved B. 1/3 chance that everybody will be saved, 2/3 chance that nobody will be saved. The outcomes are the same but people focus on gains. A. Guaranteed to lose $50 B. 80% chance of losing $70, 20% chance of losing $20. Now that you've switched to "losing" people are more likely to take the risk. |
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Under what conditions are people likely to use a risk-averse vs. risk-taking strategy? |
People are likely to use a risk-averse strategy when the focus is on saving lives. (gains) People are likely to use a risk-taking strategy when the focus is on people dying. (losses) |
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What did Gonzalez et al. find regarding the involvement of brain processes in decision making? |
Disease scenario from before, 600 lives to save. Working memory is important. Different activation depending on wording. fMRI during decisions. Cognitive effort depended on framing: In terms of gains, for people who chose 'safe bet', there was less brain activity. In terms of losses there was equally demonstrated brain activity. |
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Sunk costs |
Costs already incurred, non-refundable. Would you keep doing activity if you have already put in the money, even if you're miserable? |
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Describe the study examining the influence of hunger on judges' parole decisions. |
Danziger et al. (2011): judicial decisions if you have to make repeated decisions, you tend to default to the easier decisions. Deciding not to grant parole is easy. Deciding to let someone out is harder. Earlier in the day, parole was more likely. That decreased throughout the day, but spiked back up after a break. |
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What is meant by future/anticipated regret? |
Errors of commission are worse than errors of omission. *Changing and getting it wrong is worse than staying and getting it wrong* |
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How does anticipated regret explain people's tendency to stay with their chosen door in the Monty Hall problem? |
Most people say it doesn't matter. Anticipated regret explains why people have a tendency to stay with their chosen door because they would rather keep their door and get it wrong then switch it, get it wrong, and realize that had it right in the first place. |
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Type I Processing & Type II Processing |
Type I: fast and automatic process, not necessarily accurate. Type II: slower, deliberate process, more likely to be accurate. |
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Deductive Reasoning |
Drawing specific conclusions from general information. |
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Syllogism |
a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions, each of which shares a term with the conclusions. (i.e. some psychology majors are friendly, all friendly people are concerned about poverty, therefore some psychology majors are concerned about poverty). |
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Conditional Reasoning |
Drawing a conclusion based on a condition (i,e, if...then). if it is raining, then the street is wet. It is raining. therefore the street is wet. |
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How do negatives, belief-bias, conversion errors, confirmation bias, & hindsight bias influence reasoning? Give example for each. |
Negatives: if today is not friday, then we will not have a quiz today. We will not have a quiz today, therefore today is not friday. Belief-bias: using prior knowledge, not logic Conversion Errors: illegally "reversing" statements (If i have the flu, then I have a sore throat NOT THE SAME AS if i have a sore throat then I have the flu). Confirmation bias: seeking info to confirm a hypothesis but not to disconfirm it. Hindsight bias: overconfidence in the ability to predict outcome of past events. "i knew it all along". |
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What types of people are less susceptible to belief-bias? |
People who are not overconfident are less susceptible to belief-bias. |
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What did Wason's card selection task show? how can the confirmation bias be reduced in this task? |
Wason's card selection task showed that if people were asked to turn over cards to test if there's a vowel on one side of the card, then there's a even number on the other side, most people picked E, but also need to turn over 7 to disprove the hypothesis. It can be reduced by using a more concrete task. |
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How did Wason demonstrate the confirmation bias in a number sequence task? |
3 number sequence and you had to determine the rule. When people kept guessing to try and confirm it, it took longer to solve. They needed to use things that went against the rule. |
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How is memory affected by the confirmation bias? Describe Gilovich's study that demonstrated this. |
People who regularly bet on football games thought they had good strategies. Tested what people thought made good strategies but people would only remember what made them confident, ignoring what didn't work. They remembered things in a way that confirmed their strategies. |
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Darley & Gross that demonstrated how preconceptions interact with the confirmation bias. |
Had people watch a child taking atest and gave the SES info to influence confirmation. Rich > good grade. Poor > bad grade. |
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Real-world examples of the confirmation bias. |
Oscar the death cat Psychic experiences Dreams coming true Answered prayers Lunar effects |
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How did Carli study the hindsight bias? |
Gave people identical story about a couple. One ending: Jack assaults Barbara, the other Jack proposes to Barbara. Then asked:Did this end the way you thought it would? |
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Inductive reasoning |
Drawing a general conclusion from specific information. Cannot be certain of validity, can only evaluate strength. |
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Deductive reasoning |
Drawing a specific conclusion from general information. |
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Illusory correlation & Smedslund study that demonstrated this. |
Seeing a correlation where none exists. Got a bunch of nurses & presented cards. Each had a symptom and disease on it. Asked if they correlated when there was no true correlation between them but most of the time the nurses indicated correlation. |
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Overconfidence |
A person's subjective confidence in his or her judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments. |
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Why are we overconfident in our decisions? |
We may not be fully aware of where our knowledge comes from, you might remember the info but not the source. You remember the times you were right, but not when you were wrong. *Availability heuristic* |
