Cognitive Psychology

Front 1

Cognitive psych and historical perspective; history of modern memory research began with____; he used ____ to study the capacity of _____.

Back 1

Hermann ebbinghaus; meaningless strings of letters; our capacity of memory system.

Front 2

Edward Titchener beonged to the school___; the goal of this school was to _____ or specific ____; to accompish this he used the _____;

Back 2

Structuralism; break consciousness down into its elements or mental structures; method of introspection.

Front 3

Titchner's method f introspection was impemented with subjects by _____; he studied both ____ in a _____.

Back 3

Asking them to report on their current conscious experiences; higher mental process in a laboratory setting.

Front 4

Titchner's work spawned three other systems of thought in reaction to structuralism; Titchener was a ____ and ___ relied on the _____.

Back 4

Functionalism, behaviorism Gestalt psychology; Wundt-trained psychologis; Wundt, method of introspection.

Front 5

Noam Chomsky a ____; paved the way for _____w/a critique of _____ book ____; Chomsky opposed the ____ that _____that_____.

Back 5

Linguist; modern cognitive psychology; B.F. Skinner's 1957, Verbal Behavior; behaviorist's position that speech is best explained by operant conditioning, that language is acquired by reinforcement.

Front 6

Chomsky argued that since children ______, and that since even adults use language in ______, speech could not possibly be due to ____

Back 6

Children say things that they could not have heard adults say (errors in growth), novel and creative ways; reinforcement.

Front 7

Chomsky believed that language study is the most viable route to understanding ____. He is credited w/inspiring much research on ____.

Back 7

The midn; cognition.

Front 8

Research methods name three used in the study of human cognition.

Back 8

Reaction time; eye movements; brain imaging.

Front 9

Reaction time, process and provides insight into____.

Back 9

The measurement of the time elapsed btw a stimulus presentation and the subjects response; organization of cognitive processes.

Front 10

Reaction time is also called___.

Back 10

Mental chronometry.

Front 11

Eye movements used to study ___and ____. method is especially useful b/c the eye movements are an ____; in other words they can be ____.

Back 11

Reading, language comprehension; "on-line" measure; measured as the subject is actually performing tasks.

Front 12

Brain imaging; purpose is to?

Back 12

Associate varioius cg processes to varioius parts of the brain.

Front 13

Reserch methods in cog psych; description; method, reaction time, eye movements, brain imaging.

Back 13

Elapsed time btw stimulus presentation and the subject's response to it; an online measure of info processing in language and reading comprehension; used to associate various god prcesses w/ various parts of the brain.

Front 14

Memory; Ebbinghaus experiments; most famous experiment and methods and participants.

Back 14

Nonsense syllables; used to study memory w/self as the subject; memorize the items in the list, one at a atime and in the order they appeard on the list; after one list, he disracted himself by tring to learn man other such lists.

Front 15

Methods of savings

Back 15

Ebbinghaus measured how much of the original list he remembered using this process.

Front 16

Process of method of savings; Ebbinghaus conclusions.

Back 16

After memorizing the intitial list, compared the number of times he had to read the list in order to rememorize it; if he rememorized the list faster than he originally memorized it, concluded that he had remembered something from the first time.

Front 17

To quantify the amount of savings Ebbinghaus subracted the ___. He then divded this quantity by the ____.

Back 17

Number of trials it took to rememorize the list from the number of trials it originally took to memorize the list; by the original number of trials and mulitplied by 100 to come up with a %.

Front 18

Example of method of savings calculation; conclusions from resulting percentage.

Back 18

20 trials to memorize list; next day rememorized list but takes only 8 trials; subtract 8 from 20 and divide the result by 20 and multiply by 100; savings would be 60%; meaning that 60% of rememorization could be attributed to info he remembered from the first memorization trials.

Front 19

Forgetting curve.

Back 19

By using the method of savings over various time intervals he cam up w/ this graphic display of items first memorized and retained for rememorization and the effect of time.

Front 20

Horizontal axis indicates; bertical axis indicates.

Back 20

The number of days btw the time the list was originally learned and the time list was relearned; the percent savings.

Front 21

In Ebbinghauses forgettingg curve what is the effect of savings of learned material on time and relearning.

Back 21

Percent savings originally decreases rapidly, but then reaches a plateau after which decrease in % savings is minimal

Front 22

Application of results on memory learning, relearning and the effect of time in the Ebbinghause forgetting curve related to practice and no prac.

Back 22

Without practice, we forget rapidly, then at a certain point, forgetting occurs at a much lesser rate; with practice this forgetting curve looks different.

Front 23

1950's and study of memory

Back 23

This began the memory for meaningful material, up to that point memory for verbal material was studied w/nonsense syllab.

Front 24

Mental processes involved in memory; modern theories of memory sugges there are 3 mental processes or stages of mem.

Back 24

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Front 25

Encoding, storage and retrieval.

Back 25

Putting new info into memory; retainign the info over time; recovery of the stored material at a later time.

Front 26

Tip of the tongue phenomenon; this is a sign of what type of memory stage problem.

Back 26

Where you feel like you're on the verge of remembering something but continue to be unsuccessful doing so; retrieval.

Front 27

Mental processes involved in memory; definition, process, encoding, storage, retrieval.

Back 27

Putting info into memory; retaining info in memory; recovering the info in memory.

Front 28

Two most common methods of retrieval are?

Back 28

Recalll and recognition.

Front 29

Recall and example.

Back 29

Involves independently reproducing the info that you have been prviously exposed to; short answer and fill in the blank questions test recall.

Front 30

Recognition and example of.

Back 30

Involves realizing that a ceratin stimulus even is one you have seen or heard before; multiple choice questions test recognition.

Front 31

Generation recognition model; comparison and contrast of recall vs. recognition memory retrieval methods.

Back 31

A recall task taps the same basic process of accessing info in memory as doeas a recognition task; however a recall task requires an additional processing step, I have to generate info rather than simply recognize info presented.

Front 32

Recency effect.

Back 32

Under certain conditions our memory system varies in effectiveness; memorize a list of words, those words presenta at the endd of the list are remembered best.

Front 33

Primacy effect

Back 33

Memorization of a list of words, the items presented first are remembered fairly well.

Front 34

Recency effect vs. primacy effect in the memorization of a list of words; effect of words in the middle of the list.

Back 34

Both are remembered better than the words in the middle of the lists; however the recency effect is remembered better (last items on the list) vs. the primacy effect (words remembered first); words in the middle are forgotten most often.

Front 35

Clustering in the task of memorization and recall; example.

Back 35

Given a list of words and memorize; in trying to memorize list, I would reak it down into three clusters; catagories that exist i.e. animals, colors, fruits; upon recall the words would be recalled in those clusters; list words in groups that go together.

Front 36

Measuring retrieval; key concepts; definition; concept; recall, recognition.

Back 36

Reproducing info you have previousl been exposed to; realing that a certain stimulus event is one I have seen or heard before

Front 37

Measuring retrieval; key concepts; definition;generation-recognition

Back 37

An attempt to explain why I can usually recognize more than I can reall; model suggests that recall involves the same mental process involved in recognition plus another process not required for recognition.

Front 38

Measuring retrieval; key concepts; definition; Order effects; recency, primacy,clustering.

Back 38

Words presented at the end of a list are remembered best; words presented at the beginning of a list are remembered second-best; when asked to recall a list of words, people tend to recall words belonging to the same category.

Front 39

Stage theory of memory

Back 39

This theory holds that there are several different memory systems and the each system has a different function; theory also suggests that memories enter the various systems in a specific order.

Front 40

Three memory systems in the stage theory of memory; one of the stages is also known as?

Back 40

Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory; short term mem is also known as working memory--this is the prefered term by many of today's psychologists.

Front 41

Sensory memory

Back 41

Contains fleeting impression of sensory stimuli

Front 42

Visual memory in sensory memory is also known by this term; and auditory memory is known as?

Back 42

Iconic memory for visual and auditory is known as echoic memory.

Front 43

Sensory memory, which includes both visual, iconic memory and auditory, echoic memory info lasts how long?

Back 43

At the most, a few seconds.

Front 44

Whole-report procedure.

Back 44

Researchers used this method to find out how much info could be retained in sensory memory.

Front 45

Whole-report procedure method for retention of info in sensory memory; explain the methodology.

Back 45

Subjects looked for a fraction of a second at a visual display of nine items (ex. 3 by 3 array; 9 individual letters arranged in a tic tac toe pattern); then asked to recall as items.

Front 46

Outcome of the whole report procedure in sensory memory; original conclusions about the capacity of sensory memory.

Back 46

Average, subjects remembered 4-9 items; first researcher's concluded that this was evidence for the capacity of sensory mem at 4 items.

Front 47

George Sperling

Back 47

Suspected that the conclusion drawn that only 4 items could be stored in sensory memory, may not be an accurate indication of sensory mem capacity.

Front 48

Partial-report procedure and sensory memory; similarities and differences btw this procedure and whole-report

Back 48

Sperling devised this method; used a 3 X 3 matrix of letter; and flashed the array for a fraction of a second; differed from previous studies in that he asked subjects to report only one row of the array.

Front 49

What else did Sperling implement in his partial report procedure.

Back 49

Immediately after the presentation of the array of letter, a high, medium, or low tone was presented, indicating to the subject which row to recall though subjects didn't know beforehand what row they had to recall; therefore this was a control for the subjects possible focus on just one row; didn't allow for this.

Front 50

Results of Sperlings partial report procedure compared w/whole report procedure to determine sensory mem capacity.

Back 50

Regardless of which row Sperlig asked for the subjects recall of a single row was nearly perfect; this suggested that the capacity of sensory memory was about nine; compared to the capacity of 4 items denoted by the Whole report experiments.

Front 51

Why did the partial report procedure of Sperling elicit different results related to memory capacity then the whole report procedure.

Back 51

Whole report method as the subjects were reporting what they saw, their sensory mem of the array was decaying; by the time subjects reported four of the stimuli, the memory had already decayed;

Front 52

So in conclusion, Sterlings partial mem procedure controlled for what confounding variable?

Back 52

Memory decay.

Front 53

Short term mem; what happens to the majority of sensory input? The info that is reatind goes from sensory mem into___, which can be thought of as the link btw______.

Back 53

Most info leaves sensory info w/in a few second; info that I attend to goes from sensory mem into short term mem; link btw our rapidly changing sensory memory and long term memory.

Front 54

What does the length of time info remains in short term mem depend on?

Back 54

Length of time info remains depends on what is done w/it.

Front 55

Short term mem retention and length of time; if nothing is done w/the info___

Back 55

It will remain for only about 20 seconds.

Front 56

Short term mem retention and length of time; if the info in short term mem is _____, it can stay in short term mem for how long?

Back 56

Long time

Front 57

Maintenance rehearsal

Back 57

Info that stays in short term mem as long as I keep rehearsing the info (like when I repeat a phone number over and over again).

Front 58

What is the limit of info that can remain in short term mem? Who made the discovery?

Back 58

George Miller found that severn (plus or minus two) pieces or chunks of info can be stored in short term mem.

Front 59

George Miller short term mem capacity and chunks

Back 59

Chunks are meaningful units of info; chunk info into seven or fwere units of info; this an effective method for using short term mem.

Front 60

Phenomenon of chunking is important ____?

Back 60

Interaction in behavior and long-term memory.

Front 61

Long term memory

Back 61

Is considered to be the permanent store house of my experiences, knowledge, and skills.

Front 62

Items in long term mem can be ____ or can last ____.

Back 62

Brief; lifetime.

Front 63

Elaborative rehearsal and process of getting info into long term mem.

Back 63

Involves organizing the material and associating it w/info I already have in long termem; this is a process used to get info into long terme memorey.

Front 64

Types of rehearsal; definition; use; type; maintenance, elaborative.

Back 64

Repeating the info, keeping the info in short term mem; organizing the info and associating it w/info already in long-term mem, getting the info into long-term from short term mem.

Front 65

Two types of long term me

Back 65

Procedural memory and declarative memory

Front 66

Procedural mem (long term memory component)

Back 66

Remembering how things are done; tying my shoes laces; riding a bike; driving

Front 67

Declarative memory

Back 67

Explicit info is stored also known as fact memory;

Front 68

Two types of declarative mem;

Back 68

Semantic and episodic memory.

Front 69

Semantic memory

Back 69

Remembering general knowledge, especially the meanings of words and concepts

Front 70

Episodic memory refers to memories for___.

Back 70

Particular events or episodes that I have personally exprienced.

Front 71

Long term memory; concerned with; type, 2 components, procedural memory and declarative memory; Declarative memory has 2 components, semantic and episodic.

Back 71

Procedural;, remembering how to do things; declarative, remembering explicit info; declarative is broken into semantic, remembering general knowledge and episodic, remembering particular events I have personally experienced.

Front 72

Encoding process differs in these two types of memory stages

Back 72

Encoding for verbal material in short term mem differs from that of long term mem.

Front 73

Encoding for verbal material in short term mem tends to be ____ or ___ rather than___; example.

Back 73

Phonological; acoustic; visual; asked to recall letters from short term mem, confusions tend to occur w/letters that sound alike, i.e.d D & T; rather than w/ letters that look alike, i.e., D & O.

Front 74

Encoding for verbal material in long-term memory takes place on the basis of ____; this assertion is supported by studies of ____>

Back 74

Their meaning; semantic priming;

Front 75

Semantic priming and evidence for encoding of verbal material in long term mem on the basis of meaning; describe a usual semantic priming task; explain the process of semantic priming in a classic experiement.

Back 75

Subject has to decide whether a stimulus is a word or a nonword; Subjects were presented w/pairs fo words, some of which were semantically related (nurse-doctor) and other words which were not (nurse-butter); subjects task was topress a yes button if both words were real words and to press No if both words were not real words.

Front 76

Result of semantic priming experiment of sematically related words and response times of participants in hitting a Yes for real words and No for non real words.

Back 76

Response time was quicker if the two words were semantically related; demonstrates that encoding for long term memory is accomplished on the basis of word meaning.

Front 77

Encoding short term mem vs long term mem; encoding of verbal material likely to be based on this process; memorty system, short term mem, long term mem.

Back 77

Short term mem encoding is based on phonology not visual processes; long-term memory encoding is based on meaning of the words.

Front 78

Semantic Memory; how is semantic memory organized; Researchers answer the question of semantic mem organization w/the method___; semantic mem is part of ____ and has to do w/ remembering _____ especially the _____ and ____>

Back 78

Semantic verification task to investigate semantic mem organization; long-term mem; general knowledge, meanins of words, concepts.

Front 79

Semantic verification task to determine experimentally the organization fo semantic memory which is remembering general knowledge,, especially the meanings of words and concepts in long term memory; describe task; and denot what the experimenter measures in this task.

Back 79

Subjects are ased to indicate whether or not a simple statement presented is true or false; meausres the time it takes the subject to respond or the response latency.

Front 80

Response latency

Back 80

The length of time it takes a subject to respond in the semantic verification task when asked to indicated wheether or not a simple staement presented is true or false.

Front 81

Pattern of response latencies in the semantic verification task provide info on how?

Back 81

Semantic knowledge is stored in long term memeory.

Front 82

Collins and Loftus proposed this model in this year related to the organization of sematic mem in long term mem.

Back 82

The spreading activation model in 1975

Front 83

Spreading activation model by Collins and Loftus states that; give example

Back 83

The shorter the distance btw two words, the closer the words are related in the semantic memory; ambulance and fire engine are more closely related than amublance and street so the prior have a shorter distance btw words than the later.

Front 84

Semantic verification task and the spreading activation model; evidence given for the model based on the experimental task.

Back 84

Subjects will respond to questions about ambulances and fire engines quicker than questions about amulances and streets.

Front 85

Smith, Shoben and Rips in the early 1970's proposed this model.

Back 85

Semantic feature comparison model.

Front 86

The semantic feature comparison model proposed by Smith Shoben and Rips suggest that

Back 86

Concepts are represented by sets of features som of which are required for that concep and some of which are typical of that concept.

Front 87

Concept are represented by sets of features, some required for the concept and some which are typical of the concept give an example of this as related to the sematic feature comparison model

Back 87

Concept of college is represented by the features, has faculty (required), offers degrees (required), has fraternities (typical).

Front 88

What does the smantic feature comparison model proposed by Smith, Shoben and Rips prdict in a semantic verification task; example A robin is a bird.

Back 88

The first step is to compare the characterisitics of robins w/characteristics of birds; remember, these lists of features are stored in my semantic memory.

Front 89

In the semantic feature comparison model, features are stored in _____ so the whole process of comparison of a robins characteristics w/the characteristics of birds is ____ and ____.

Back 89

Sematic memory; fairly quick, automatic.

Front 90

What happens in the sematic feature comparison model if there is a lot of overlap btw the lists of characteristics as is the case w/ those of robins and birds; if there is no or very little overlap between target object characteristics and characteristics of category of object then?

Back 90

Then I will respond True quickly; The I will respond false fairly quickly.

Front 91

What if ther is some overlap compared to a lot of overlap or little overlap of objects characteristics w/that of the category characteristics? Give examples of alot, little and some overlap.

Back 91

Then it will take me longer to reach a decision; A robin is a bird, quick true; A horse is a fish, quick false; a turkey is a bird.

Front 92

Why would it take longer for a person to denote true or false in the sentence a turkey is a bird?

Back 92

There is some overlap btw the feature lists for turkey and bird, but not a lot since a turkey is a relatively atypical bird.

Front 93

Semantic memory; key concepts; description; concept, semantic verification task

Back 93

Method used to investigate the organization of semantic memory.

Front 94

Semantic memory; key concepts; description; concept, spreading activation model.

Back 94

Semantic mem organized into map of interconnected concepts; the key is the distance btw the concepts

Front 95

Semantic memory; key concepts; description; concept, semantic feature-comparison model

Back 95

Semantic mem contains feature lists of concepts; the key is the amount of overlap in the feature lists of the concepts; a lot and little = quick response, some = longer response times.

Front 96

Levels of processing theory; compared to what other theory of memory

Back 96

The stage theory of memory, which is widely accepted also challenged; levels of prcessing is the most influential competing theory.

Front 97

Levels of processing is also called this____. The theory was proposed by whom and suggests

Back 97

Depth of processing theory; Craik and Lockart; what determines how long I will remember material is not what mem system the info gets into, but the way in which I process the material.

Front 98

Levels of processing theory related to memory storage involves how many stages; what did Craik and Lockart postulate?

Back 98

Only one memory system contrasted with Stage theory of mem which contains 3 systems; That an item entering into mem is analyzed in stages; differs from stages of mem in the stage theory.

Front 99

Levels of processing theory or depth of processing theory by Craik and Lockart argues for stages of analysis related to storage, versus different stage systems of mem; name the three levels of analysis of an item prior to entering memor that occur.

Back 99

Physical; acoustica semantic.

Front 100

Info is processed in three ways, physical, acoustical semantic ( through analysis of itema).

Back 100

Physical (visual), focus is on the appearance, size and shape of the info; acoustical, focus is on the sound combo words have; semantic, focus in on the meaning of the word.

Front 101

The three levels demand different amounts of _____. Name the diffrent levels of ___in each level of analysis.

Back 101

Mental effort; physical (visual), demands very little effort, the third and deepest level of item analysis, semantic, demands more effort.

Front 102

Thus, the three levels of item analysis in the levels of processing theory purport that the deeper the ____, and the _____the ____, the better my _____; later stages ____of processing also include ____.

Back 102

Processing; greater the effort; memory will be of the material; deeper levels; connecting the info w/other info in memory.

Front 103

Paivio's dual-code hypothesis is another theory of memory and info storage which suggests that info is ___or ___in two ways.

Back 103

Stored, encoded; visually and verbally.

Front 104

Paivio's dual code hypothesis and info storage and encoding happens in two ways, visually and verbally; abstract info is____; where as concrete info ____; give example.

Back 104

Tends to be encoded verbally; tends to be encoded visually (as an image) and verbally; The word virtue would be encoded verbally while the word elephant would be encoded both visually and verbally.

Front 105

Psychologists believe that memory is a result of a ___ btw what I ____ and what I ____; give analogy of this concept.

Back 105

Dynamic interplay; experience; already know; like a food processor, what comes out doesn't necessarily look like what went in; compared to a tape recorder picking up incoming stimuli, recording them and spitting them back

Front 106

Schema definition and the role of dynamic interplay btw what we experience and what we already know in the process of mem.

Back 106

Schemata is plural form of schema; Schemata are conceptual frameworks we use to organize our knowledge; interpret our experiences and remember them in terms of our existing schemata.

Front 107

Trying to make my experiences fit into my existing scemata can lead to___; also, if I have a tough time matching up my experiences with a schema then I will have _____.

Back 107

Distortions in my memories; I will have difficulty remembering it.

Front 108

Forgetting; name the early explanation of theorists

Back 108

Decay theory

Front 109

Decay theory to explain forgetting holds that?

Back 109

Info in long term mem is not used or reheared it will eventually be forgottem.

Front 110

Name a problem w/decay theory in explaining the phenomenon of forgetting.

Back 110

The theory assumes that what I have learned in the time that elapsed btw mem and attempted retrieval makes no difference; but it does.

Front 111

Modern reserach on long-term mem focuses on forgetting; inhibition theory a better explanation for forgetting that decay theory suggests that forgetting is due to the ____.

Back 111

Activities that have taken place btw original learning and the later attempted recall.

Front 112

Two types of basic inhibition in forgetting; the time between memorization and recall or original learning and the later attempted recall.

Back 112

Retroactive and proactive inhibition.

Front 113

Proactive inhibition in the inhibition theory that explains forgetting.

Back 113

What I learned earlier interferes w/what I learn later; learn french as a second language and then spanish as a thir, I may find that as I am learning spanish I occasioally speak in French.

Front 114

Retroative inhibition in the inhibition theory that explains forgetting.

Back 114

occurs when I forget waht I learned earlier as I learn something new; Learn list A then learn list B but find that I can't recall list A anymore, I have encountred retroactive inhibition.

Front 115

Facilitating memory; when it appears like I have forgotten something but really haven't this is called___.

Back 115

Encoding specificity.

Front 116

Encoding specificity problem that may look like forgetting; ex.

Back 116

Is the assumption that recall will be best if the context at recall approximates the context dring the original encoding; know I will be taking a test in a classroom, try to study in a room that has some of the features.

Front 117

Another example of a type of memory issue that is interfering w/ mem recall and may appear like forgetting is state dependant learning; this is a specific case of what kind of problem?

Back 117

Encoding specificity.

Front 118

Encoding specificity and a special case of this issue in memory recall, state dependent learning suggest that recall will be better if my ____; give ex.

Back 118

Psychological or physical state at the time of recall is the same as my state when I memorized the material; If I was upset when I memorized the material, will have better recall of it if I am upset at the time of recall.

Front 119

Mnemonic devices in facilitating memore are techniques that I use to ____; name two mnemonic devices.

Back 119

Improve the likelihod that I will remembers something; chunking and the method of loci.

Front 120

Chunking and method of loci; describe method of loci

Back 120

Is a system of associating info w/some sequence of places w/ which I am familiar; to remember a list of ten words, plae each one of these words alongside something I see on the pathway btw my home and school.

Front 121

Method of loci and placing each word in a list of ten on the path from home to school I need to remember ______; Once I have remembered_____I can remember this list and other things for ____, if I to this.

Back 121

Where I have place everything (all the items on my list to be memorized) then I am done; for months; associate what I have to learn w/a sequence of places well known to me--like the route from home to school.

Front 122

Reconstructive mem; who and what was his classic study; findings.

Back 122

Sir Frderick Bartlett studied mem that used the War of the Ghosts a native american folk talke; found that subjects reconstructed the story in line w/their own expectations and schema for a ghost story.

Front 123

Remmber in relation to Barlett and the study that used the WAr of the Ghosts; native american folk take--that___.

Back 123

Prior knowledge and expectations influence recall; which explaines why the subjects reconstructed the story in line w/ their own expectations and schema for a ghost story.

Front 124

Eyewitness mem; who; and the tendency of eyewitnesses to do this related to memort; findings

Back 124

Elizab eth Loftus; eyewitnesses memories and the tendency for eyewitnesses to be influenced or confused by misleading info; much of eyewitness mem and testimone can be erroneous.

Front 125

Loftus work in the area of eyewitness me and tendence for eye witness to be influence or confused by misleading info has been influential in both __and __fields; recently she has studied the accuracy of ____.

Back 125

Legal, psychological; Repressed memories that return later in life.

Front 126

Zeigarnik effect referes to the tendency to remember? ex.

Back 126

Incomplete tasks better than completed tasks; easier to remember chores I haven't copleted than the chores I have.

Front 127

Thinking; problem solving;

Back 127

Much research has focused on impediments to effective problem solving;

Front 128

Impediments to effective problem solving as exampled by the Luchins water-jar problem; describe task in experiment; how are subjects helped in solving subsequent problems?

Back 128

Subjects are presented w/three empty jars and a list of the capacities of each jar; asked to obtain a particular amount of water in one of the jars; Discover pattern that helps to solve other problems

Front 129

A complex solution to solving a problem can be utilized in subsequent problems when the same solution provides a correct answer; after several problems using a more complex solution to solve the problems what occurs?

Back 129

A mental set.

Front 130

Mental set

Back 130

May not use an easier solution to a problem though one is available after using a more complex solution to solve several problems; tendency to keep repeating solutions that worked in other situation;

Front 131

So in a mental set related to problem solving; past experience affects____; what is the outcome of a mental set applied to problem solving.

Back 131

The strategies I use to solve problems; inappropriate sets can be impediments to effective problem solving.

Front 132

Functional fixedness and ineffective problem solving; which experiment demonstrates this problem; outcome.

Back 132

Candle, tacks and matches, mount candle on wall w/o dropping wax on floor; solution is to realize that the box the matches are in can serve also as a candle holder; people get used to certain things having certain functions.

Front 133

Formal definition of functional fixedness

Back 133

The inability to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way.

Front 134

Creativity is closely related to___; how do cog psych. think of creativity?

Back 134

Problem solving; as a cognitive ability that results in new ways of viewing problems or situations.

Front 135

When do creative solutions often occur; name the specific process and term associated w/ this process.

Back 135

When I am thinking of something else or suddenly in what can be described as a "eureka" experience.

Front 136

Guilfords is known for the most famous attempt to measure creativity; name the measurement device.

Back 136

Guilford's test of divergent thinking;

Front 137

Guilford's test of divergent thinking; what is divergent thinking? Give example

Back 137

Is thinking that involves producing as many creative answers to a question as possible; What can I use a brick for; to make a building or build a wall; not creative answers.

Front 138

Non creative answers in response to what can a brick be used for respond w/to build a wall or make a building; creative people respond to this question how?

Back 138

Use brick as a condle holder or could paint happy bday on it and give it to best freind as a bday gift.

Front 139

In divergent thinking and individua's thoughts do what??

Back 139

Diverge along mulitple paths of possibilities.

Front 140

Decision Making; heuristics; two psychologists who investigated how decision making process can sometimes go awry.

Back 140

Every day we make some insignificant decisions and other that are very important; Daviel Kahneman and Amos Tversky.

Front 141

Kahneman and Tversky found that humans use ___ in decision making, which are_____/

Back 141

Heuristics; short-cuts or rules of thumb, to make decisions.

Front 142

Decision making process that is not sound is the availability heuristic; leads to erroneous decision; used in these situations.

Back 142

When a person tries to decide how likely something is; use this to make decisions based upon how easily simiar instances can be imagined.

Front 143

When we try to decide how likely something is to happen or occurs we use the availability heuristic which is a mental shortcut to a decision that often ends up in error; thus I use the info that is___; Often this heuristic leads me to a ____; but____; give ex.

Back 143

Most readily available in memory to make my decisions; a correct decisions; not always; are there more words in the English language that start w/the letter K or that have K as their third letter.

Front 144

Answer to the K question in relation to the availability heuristic, error that occurs; why does this take place?

Back 144

More words that begin w/ letter k and this is erroneous; more words w/k as third letter; approach the problem by trying to think of words that begin with K and words that have K as a third letter; so use to categorizing words by fist letter, easier to think of words beginning with K; using the availability heuristic, come to an erroneous conclusion.

Front 145

Representative heuristic involve ____on the basis of whether they _____,___ or ____of the category; the use of this heuristic often leads to ___, but can lead to____.

Back 145

Categorizing things on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, sterotypical or representative image of the category; to correct decision and can lead us astray.

Front 146

Using prototypical and sterotypical factors rather than actual _____about which category is more numerous is called _____.

Back 146

Numerical info; base-rate fallacy.

Front 147

Base rate fallacy and the representativeness heuristic which categorizes things on basis of fit to the prototypical, stereotyical, or representative image of a category leads to this flaw in decision making.

Back 147

Base-rate fallacy.

Front 148

Heuristics can lead us astray and at the same time they are essential to ________; Heuristics are used by ______in a ____; ex.

Back 148

Speedy, effective decision making; experts, given field; In order to win at chess, got to be able to htink ahead several moves b4 I decide which move I am going to make; any turn may have 15-20 possible moves.

Front 149

What is the list of all the possible moves I can make in a game of chess or in any decision making problem?

Back 149

The problem space = all the possible consequences of all of these possible moves.

Front 150

Thinking about all of the possible consequences and all of the possible moves would lead to?

Back 150

A really long time taken to make a decision.

Front 151

Heuristic can be used in the ex of chess as utilized by the experts to quickly; ex.

Back 151

Eliminate from consideration some of the possible moves.

Front 152

Thinking; key concepts; explanation, concept; problem solving, name two.

Back 152

Mental set, tendency to keep repeating solutions that worked in other situations; functional fixedness, the inability to use a familiar object in an unfamilar way.

Front 153

Thinking; key concepts; explanation, concept; creativity, name one.

Back 153

Divergent thinking, attempting to produce as many creative answers to a question as possible.

Front 154

Thinking; key concepts; explanation, concept; Decision-making name first 2.

Back 154

Heuristics, short cuts and rules of thumb we can use in making decsions; availability heuristic, making decisions about frequencies based upon how easy it is to imagine the items involved.

Front 155

Thinking; key concepts; explanation, concept; Decision making, name next two.

Back 155

Representativeness heurisitc, categorizing things on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical image of the category; base-rate fallacy, ignoring the numerical info about the items being referred to when catagorizing them.

Front 156

Language; components; phonemes, morphemes.

Back 156

Phonemes are the smallest soundunits, word field onsists of 4 phonemes, the e sound, l, f and d; morphemes smallest units of meaning; walked is two morph, walk indicating action and ed incating that the action took place in the past; troubleshooter is 3 morph = trouble, shoot and er.

Front 157

Language components sementics and syntax.

Back 157

Semantics deals w/the meaning of words and sentences; syntax deals w/the grammatical arrangement of words in sentneces.

Front 158

Theories of language development; name two and explain what the theorists purported.

Back 158

Learning theory (Skinner) and early cognitive developmental theory (Piaget); language is acquired through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and/or modeling.

Front 159

Cognitive developmental theorists believe that language has to do w/ the child's___during which period.

Back 159

Capacity for symbolic thought, which develops toward the end of the sensorimotor period.

Front 160

Cognitive developmentl theorists believe that the capacity for language has to do w/child's capacity for symbolic thought, develops toward end of sensorimotor period; this perspective hold that language continues to develop ____; give ex.

Back 160

According to the child's cognitive level; the acusition of comparison terms like more than or less than occurs about the same time that cognition develops from preoperational to concrete oeprational thought.

Front 161

Chomskys work critiqued the___ perspective on language and proposed___; children across the world produce speech ____; become fluent by ____.

Back 161

Behaviorist; a nativist theory of language acquisiton; so early in their development (12-18 months); about 5 years old.

Front 162

As a result of this universal time for production of language and age of language fluency, chomsky believe that ther must be an ___for language acquisition; In response to this he proposed a _______, which is_____.

Back 162

Innate, biologically based mechanism for language acquisition; language acquisition device (LAD), built in advanced knowledge of rule structures in language.

Front 163

Two important aspects of Chomsky's thoery of grammar and the LAD; name the distinction btw; and the concept of this process in language acquisition.

Back 163

Deep and surface grammatical structure; transformational rules.

Front 164

Surface structure in surface grammatical structure

Back 164

Surface structure of a sentence is the actual word order of the words in a sentence.

Front 165

Deep structure also known as__structure is an _____; give ex.

Back 165

Abstract; underlying form that specifies the meaning of the sentence; sentences have different surface structures but similar deep structures; the boy picked up the book, the boy picked the book up, the book was picked up by the boy.

Front 166

Concerning deep and surface grammatical structure, sometimes sentences can have the same___structure with _____.

Back 166

Surface; different meanings; They are eating apples, can mean that some eople are eating apples or that those apples are for eating.

Front 167

Transformational rules; Chomsky's nativist LAD language theory.

Back 167

How I can change one structure into another; The house is green and is the house green are related by a transformational rule including the set of rules that tell me how to change a statement to a question.

Front 168

The relationship btw language and thought; who studied this relationship and what is the hypothesis also known as this___>

Back 168

Benjamin Whorf; Whorfian hypothesis; linguistic relativity hypothesis.

Front 169

Whorfian hypothesis also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis by Benjamin Whorf suggest that our ____, the way that we ____ is determined by the ____; ex.

Back 169

perception of reality; think about the world; content of language; Language affects the way we think, thinking does not affect our language;

Front 170

So language affects the way we think and not vica versa according to the Whorfian hypothesis; give ex. of Eskimo language and snow in comparison to English langua.

Back 170

Eskimo language has a wided variety of names for different types of snow; english language only one; Thus, Eskimos are better at discriminating btw different types of snow than english speakers.

Front 171

Result of Whorfian hypothesis which explains the relationship btw language and thought as thought is that lang determines how reality ____ and there is ____>

Back 171

Controversial; evidence both for it and against the Whorfian hypothesis.

Front 172

Language; key concepts; definition; concept; components of language, name four.

Back 172

Phonemes, smallest sound units; morphemes, smallest units of meaning; syntax, grammatical arrangement of words and sentences; semantics, meanings of words and sentences.

Front 173

Language; key concepts; definition; concept, who and name two of three components.

Back 173

Noam Chomsky; surface structure, the actual order of words in a sentence; deep structure, an underlying for that specifies the meaning of the sentence regardless of word order.

Front 174

Language; key concepts; definition; concept, who and name the third of three compon.

Back 174

Naom Chomsky; transformationional rules; tells me how I can change from one sentence form to another (e.g. from a sentence in the active voice to a sentence in the passive voice).

Front 175

Language; key concepts; definition; concept, who and concept.

Back 175

Benjamin Whorf; Whorfian hypothesis; language determines how reality is perceived.

Front 176

Gender differences in language development; these studies remain ____; two theorists____ found evidence to support___.

Back 176

Controversial; Eleanor Macoby and Carol Jacklin; better verbal abilities in girls in their studies.

Front 177

Intelligence; concerning the definition; first theorist to define; suggested that individual differences in intelligence are ____; which he called ___.

Back 177

Much debate related to the definition; Charles Spearman; Largely due to variations in the amount of a general, unitary factor; g.

Front 178

Louis Thurstone identified ___, which he called____; name a few; methods used more____but more____.

Back 178

Seven abilities, primary mentla abilities ie. verbal comprehension, number ability, perceptual speed, gneral reasoning; utilized factor analysis w/factors, specific than g, general than s.

Front 179

Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory suggests there are three___ to intelligence; name these.

Back 179

Aspects; componential (performance on tests), experiential (creativity), contextual (street smarts/business sense).

Front 180

Howard Gardner's theory is called ____; with ____ defined; name these;

Back 180

Theory of multiple intelligences; 7; lingistic ability, logical-mathmatical ability, spatial ability, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal.

Front 181

Gardner argues that Western culture values___; These abilities are measured and tested___ in Western culture.

Back 181

The first two abilities which are linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities; Traditional IQ tests.

Front 182

Theorists have also studied what happens to intelligence as a person develops; specifically who and what types of intelligence did he suggest.

Back 182

Raymond Cattell, divided mental abilities into two major types; fluid and crystallized intelligence.

Front 183

Fluid intelligence according to cattells theory of mental abilities as an outcome of intelligence change in relation to development; name ex.

Back 183

Described as the ability to quickly grasp relationships in novel situations and make correct deductions from them; solving analogies requires fluid

Front 184

The other major type of menatl abilities in the effects of development on intelligence proposed by cattell; crystallized

Back 184

Contrast to fluid intelligence and is the ability to understand relationships or solve problems that depend on knowledge acquired as a result of school or other life experiences;

Front 185

Chrystallized compared w/ fluid according to cattell in relation to the lifespan development.

Back 185

Crystal increases throughout the lifespan b/c it is dependent on education/experience; Fluid gradually increase through child/adolescence, level in young adult, begins a steady decrease w/advanced age.

Front 186

Fluid intelligence increases w/this corresponding develpmental event and decreases w/this corresponding developmental event.

Back 186

Increase parallels an increase in neurological maturation in child/adolescence; advanced age parallels decline w/ neurological degeneration.

Front 187

Intelligence and the lifespan; Cattell's theory; Course throughout lifespan, type of intelligence.

Back 187

Fluid, increase child/ adolesc, level off young adulthood, begins a steady decline w/advanced age; crystal, increases throughout the lifesp

Front 188

Arthur Jensen is a prominent___who studied___. Suggested that _____related to IQ tests was this.

Back 188

Educational psychologist; intelligence; intelligence as measured by IQ tests was almost entirely genetic in natre and that I could not teach someone to score higher on IQ tests.

Front 189

Jensena prominent educational psychologist who studied intelligence and claimed that IQ measured by IQ tests was entirely genetic cannot teach to score higher also focused on differences in IQ____>

Back 189

Difference in IQ scores across racial lines, and provoked a great deal of controversy w/this line of inquiry.

Front 190

Info processing accounts for and used to assume that the brain___.

Back 190

Used to assume that the brain processed info serially; that i performs one stage of processing at a time.

Front 191

In the mid 1980's the assumption that the brain processed info serially, one stage of processing at a time, was usurped w/this theory, by these author's, outlined in this book.

Back 191

Mid 1980's McClelland and Rumelhart; two volume book about parallel distributed processes (PDP), propsing that info processing is distributed across the brain and is done in a parallel fashion.

Front 192

Metapsychology; meta refers to the ability to____; metacognition and metamemory refer to a person's ability to ____and _____; give ex

Back 192

Reflect upon something; a person's ability to think about, monitor cognition and memory, respectively; reviewing major psych concepts for the GRE, I am probably thinking about whether or not it will be difficult to remember everything, whether mnemonic devices would help etc.

Front 193

Bartlett, F.

Back 193

Investigated the role of schemata in memory; concluded that memory is largely a reconstructive process

Front 194

Cattell, R.

Back 194

Divided intelligence into fluid and crystallized and looke at how they change throughout the lifespan.

Front 195

Chomsky, N.

Back 195

Distinguished btw the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence; studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another.

Front 196

Collins, A. and Loftus, E.

Back 196

Devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory.

Front 197

Craik, F. and Lockhart, R.

Back 197

Developed the levels of processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory.

Front 198

Ebbinghaus, H.

Back 198

Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings.

Front 199

Gardner, H.

Back 199

Proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divides intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important; traditional IQ tests measure only two of the seven types of intelligiences.

Front 200

Guilford, J.

Back 200

Devised divergent thinking test to measure creativity.

Front 201

Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A.

Back 201

Investigated the used of heuristics in decision making; studied tha availabiltiy and representativeness heuristics

Front 202

Loftus, E.

Back 202

Studied eyewitness memory and concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new info or by asking misleading questions.

Front 203

Luchins, A.

Back 203

used the water-jar problem to study the effect of mental sets on problem solving.

Front 204

Macoby, E. and Jacklin, C.

Back 204

Found support for gender differences in verbal ability; better for girls.

Front 205

McClelland, J and Rumelhart, D.

Back 205

Suggested that the brain processes info using parallel distributed processing (PDP).

Front 206

Miller, G.

Back 206

Found that the capacity of shor term mem is seven (plus or minus two( items

Front 207

Paivio, A.

Back 207

Proposed dual code hypothesis.

Front 208

Smith, E., Shoben, E., & Rips, L.

Back 208

Devised the semantic feature-comparison model of semantic mem.

Front 209

Spearman, C.

Back 209

Suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to differnces in amount of a general factor called g (remember g rhymes with c for theorist Spearman, C.).

Front 210

Sperling, G.

Back 210

Studied the capacity of sensory mem using the partial-report method instead of the whole report method that better predicted sensory memory capacity (9); whole report method accounted for a sensory memory capacity of 4; partial controlled for decay.

Front 211

Sternberg, R.

Back 211

Proposed triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: componential, experiential, and contextual.

Front 212

Thurstone, L.

Back 212

Used factor analysis to study primary mental abilities; factors more specific than g, but more general than s.

Front 213

Whorf, B.

Back 213

Hypothesized that language determines how reality is perceived not vica versa; thought doesnt determine how reality is perceived.

Front 214

Studying memory involves

Back 214

understanding how things are remembered and why things are forgotten.

Front 215

Three stages of memory; first forms the connection btw ___ and ___.

Back 215

Sensory, short-term, long term; perception and memory.

Front 216

George Sperling found that in this type of memory____ which is the ____ for ____;people could _____more than they____.

Back 216

Iconic; sensory memory for vision; see, can remember.

Front 217

Partial report developed by___ shows that this type of memory exists for this period of time.

Back 217

As subjects wrote down the letters of aparticular line; the invariably forgot the other letters in the time that it took to write down the first letters; George Sperling; sensory memory, but only for a few seconds.

Front 218

Ulric Neisser coined the term ___for this type of memory; he found that an ____lasts for ____'; He also found that when subjects were exposed to a _____or a ___b4 the ___; this will result____>

Back 218

Icon; brief visual memory; icon, one second; bright flash of light, new pattern, iconic image fades, the first image will be erased.

Front 219

Backward masking, who and what is the effect in memory.

Back 219

Ulric Neisser; works for both auditory and visual brief mem processes; mask is more successful if it is similar to the original stimulus.

Front 220

Concept of sensory mem explains why if I wiggle a pen back and forth I will see; sensory info remains ___in my ____; b/c the pen moves ____, the sensory info ____, due to the holding capacity of ____.

Back 220

Trails or a ghost pen in all positions briefly (1 sec.), in awareness; quickly; runs together due to the 1 sec retention of sensory info in sensory mem, which leads to a mixed sensory/perception.

Front 221

Echoic memory

Back 221

Sensory mem for auditory sensations.

Front 222

STM lasts for ___or___;

Back 222

Seconds or minutes.

Front 223

STM and working memory

Back 223

The temporary memory that is needed to perform the task that someone is working on at that moment.

Front 224

Chunking

Back 224

Grouping items can increase the capacity of STM.

Front 225

Stme is thought to be largely ___; and items are _____.

Back 225

Auditory; coded phonlogically.

Front 226

Key to keeping items in the STM and transferring items to the long term memory is____/

Back 226

Rehearsal (repeating or practicing).

Front 227

Primary maintenence rehearsal and secondary elaborative rehearsal; differentiate btw the two processes in transferring items; which process facilitates the transfer of info from STM to LTM?

Back 227

Prim. maintenance, simply involves repeating material in order to hold it in STM; sec., elaborative rehearsal, involves organizing and understanding material in order to transfer it to LTM>

Front 228

STME is susceptible to _____, which means that____;

Back 228

Interference; how other info or distractions cause one to forget items in STM.

Front 229

Proactive interferences and the cause of proactive inhibition.

Back 229

Disrupting info that was learned before the new itmes were presented, such as a list of similar words, problematic for recall and causes proactive inhibition.

Front 230

Retroactive interference and the cause of retroactive inhibition.

Back 230

Disrupting info that was learned after the new items were presented; prlematic for recall and cuases retroactive inhibition.

Front 231

LTM; capability; most items stored are learned ____ for___;

Back 231

Capable of permanent retention; learned semantically, for meaning.

Front 232

LTM retention is meaured by these three mem. processes.

Back 232

Recognition, recall, savings.

Front 233

LTM mem retention and recognition measurment.

Back 233

requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past; multiple choice test.

Front 234

LTM mem retention and recall measurement; two types name.

Back 234

Requires that subjects generate info on their own; cued recall, free recall.

Front 235

Recall and fill in the blank tasks to test LTM retention; cued recall is ___; free recall____>

Back 235

Begins the task; fill in the blank; Is remembering w/no cue.

Front 236

LTM is subject to this principle, which means that material is more likely to be remembered if___ and____.

Back 236

Encoding specificity principle; If it is retrieved in the same context in which it was stored and in the same state--state dependent effects.

Front 237

LTM is not subject to these two related effects; however LTM is subject to the ____as ____.

Back 237

Primacy and recenty effects; same interference effects as STM.

Front 238

Episodic memory vs semantic mem.

Back 238

Episodic mem, consists of details, events and descrete knowledge; semantic, consists of general knowledge of the world.

Front 239

Procedural vs declarative mem

Back 239

Procedural mem is knowing how to do something; declarative me is knowing a fact.

Front 240

Explicit vs implicit mem.

Back 240

Explicit mem is knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it, such as knowing a fact; implicit mem is knowing something w/out being aware of knowing it.

Front 241

Give an example of implicit memory related to HM; memory problem; performance on this task____however while this result occurred HM reported that _____>

Back 241

He was an amnesia patient, performance on a mirror-drawing task increased after several days of practice; each day he reported that he had never completed the task b4.

Front 242

Ebbinghaus first to____; using what methods to study this ___type of memory.

Back 242

First to study mem. systematically; study of STM w/nonsense syllables;

Front 243

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve; describe the trend that occurs in forgetting; which reflects initially a sharp drop in___immediately after___; then savings ____ w/a slight ____.

Back 243

forgetting curve, depicts a sharp drop in savings immediately after learning and then levels off, w/a slight downward trend.

Front 244

Critique of the ebbinghaus forgetting curve.

Back 244

Some psychologiss doubt that results obtained from having subjects memorized lists of nonsense syllables generalize to other types of memory.

Front 245

Frederick Bartlett found that memore is ___, rather than ___.

Back 245

Reconstructive; rote

Front 246

With this method, Bartlett discovered that people are more likely to remember the ____, rather than the ____ or ___; which gives evidence for _____memormy versus ___memory.

Back 246

Using the story "War of the Ghosts;" the ideas or semantics of a story, details or grammar of a story; evidence that memory is reconstructive vs rote.

Front 247

Allan Paivio known for which memory hypothesis

Back 247

Dual code hypthesis.

Front 248

Dual code hypothesis, proposed by Allan Paivio suggests that items will be ____if they are ____both ____ and ____.

Back 248

Better remembered if they are encoded both visualy (w/icons or imagery) and semantically (w/understanding).

Front 249

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart proported this process of memory.

Back 249

Depth of processing

Front 250

Craik and Lockhart's depth of processing theory asserts that ___and ____depend on the___; Different levels of ____, from the most ____, to the _____; Application of this theory.

Back 250

Learning and recall depend on depth of processing; Different levels of processing exist from the most superficial phonological (pronunciation) level to the deep semantic (meaning) level; the deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall.

Front 251

Behaviorists explain memory through ____.

Back 251

Paired-associate learning.

Front 252

Paired associate learning to explain memory according to the behaviorist school.

Back 252

One item is learned w/ and then cues the recall of, another

Front 253

Elizabeth Loftus found that memory of ____ is ___by the ____ and by the way that ___ are___.

Back 253

Traumatic events is altered by the event itself and btw that questions about the event are phrased.

Front 254

Elizabeth Loftus and the effect of traumatic events on memories, which are altered by the event itself and the way that questions are phrased; give ex of question phrasing and the result on memory recall.

Back 254

How fast were the cars going when they crashed? This elicits higher speed estimates than What was the rate of the cars upon impact.

Front 255

Elizabeth Loftus finding is particularly important for_____, such as the _____.

Back 255

Law-psych issues; questioning of witnesses.

Front 256

Karl Lashley found that memories are____.

Back 256

Stored diffusely in the brain which is the info processing PDP theory? double check this.

Front 257

Donald hebb positied that memory involves ___, making a ____.

Back 257

Changes of synapses and neural pathways, a memory tree.

Front 258

E. R. Kandel had similar ideas from studying ___; brain studies of young chicks show that their brains are _____.

Back 258

Sea slug Aplysia; altered w/learning and memory.

Front 259

Brenda Milner wrote about ___; who was given a ___ for ___ to tx ____; He remembered things from ___ and his ____was___, he could not ____.

Back 259

Patient HM; lesion of the hippocampus, severe epilepsy; things from before the surgery, STM still intact; store any long term memories.

Front 260

Types of verbal learning and memory tasks; Serial learning what is this type of verbal learning on mem task.

Back 260

A list such as prsidents of the US is learned and recalled in order

Front 261

Serial recall

Back 261

Items on a listed that are recalled in the exact order presented in the list.

Front 262

Seriial learning is subject to

Back 262

Primacy and recency effects.

Front 263

Primacy effect is a result of___; recency effect is a result of___.

Back 263

First itms are rememberd b/c they benefit from the most rehearsal/exposure; last items are easy to remember b/c there has been less time for decay, w/recency have the stronger effect of the two.

Front 264

Serial-position curve demostrates__.

Back 264

Is a U-shaped curve on a graph that shows this primary/receny savings effect.

Front 265

Serial anticipation learning.

Back 265

Similar to serial learning however, instead of recalling the entire list at once, subject is asked to recall one item at at time; presented w/first president; then say the next on the list; presented w/ the recalled president and then say the next, recall.

Front 266

Paired associate learning ex.

Back 266

Free-recall learning.Behavioral theory of learning/memory; when studying foreign language we remember tha coche means car and hombre means man; pair the Spanish word w/the English word.

Front 267

Free recall learning

Back 267

A list of items is learned and then must be recalled in any order w/no cue.

Front 268

Name the factors that make items on a list easier to learn and retrieve.

Back 268

Acoustic and semantic dissimilarity; brevity, familiarity, concreteness, meaning, importance to the subject.

Front 269

Brevity as a factor in making items on a list easier to learn and retrieve is both

Back 269

In the length of the term and in the length of the list of terms to be remembered.

Front 270

Two ain theories suggest the origin of forgetting

Back 270

Decay theory and interference theory

Front 271

Decay theory is also known as ___; posits that memories ___; crticism of the dacay theory.

Back 271

Trace theory; fade w/time; too simplistic b/c other activities are known to interfere w/retrieval.

Front 272

Interference theory suggest that ____; ex.

Back 272

Competing info blocks retrieval; two groups learned a list of words, then one group sleeps while other group solves riddles; group that slep is more likely to remember more from the list.

Front 273

Related to the Interference theory and competing info blocking retrieval of learned info; in the example where one group sleeps while the other solves riddles and the group that slept will remember more words; for both groups what was constant and different.

Back 273

The passage of time same; riddle group, competing information interfered w/ word retrieval.

Front 274

Mnemonics

Back 274

memory cues that help learning and recall. Ocean used as a mnemonic to hep me remember the Big Five factors of personality.

Front 275

Generation recognition model suggest that anything one might recall should be

Back 275

Easily recognized; That is why a multiple-coice or recognition test is easier tahn an essay or recall test.

Front 276

Tip of the tongue

Back 276

Being on the verge of retrieval but not successfully doin so.

Front 277

State dependent mem is like this type of learning__. Retrieval is more successful if it occurs in the same ____in which ____; explains why ____cannot easily ____; and why ___often remember details of _____.

Back 277

State-dependent learning; emotional or physical state, encoding occurred; depressed individuals cannot easily recall happy memories, alcoholics remember details of their last drinking sessiononly when under the influence of alcohol

Front 278

Clustering

Back 278

Brain's tendency to group together similar items in memory whethr they are learned toegher or not; most often they are grouped into conceptual or semantic heirarchies.

Front 279

Order of items on a list in a recall task, subjects can more quickly state___that are____;than two items ____; ex of list of numbers; subjects can recognized that _____more quicly than they can recognize that _____.

Back 279

The order of two items that are far apart on the list, two items that are close together; list of #'s; recognize 7 occurs before 593 more quickly than recognize that 133 occurs b4 136.

Front 280

Incidental learning is measured through____and then testing for___.

Back 280

Presenting subjects w/items they are not supposed to try to memorized and then testing for learning.

Front 281

Eidetic imagery is ___; This type of memory is more common in ___and ___.

Back 281

Photographic memory; children and rural cultures.

Front 282

Glashbulb memories are recollections that seem _____; ex.

Back 282

Burned into the brain; what is your memory of the world trade center collapsing.

Front 283

Tachtiscope

Back 283

Instrument often used in cognitive or memory experiments; presents visual material (words or images) to subjects for a fraction of a second.

Front 284

Tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed ones is known as the ___.

Back 284

Zeigarnik effect.

Front 285

Rote memorization depends only on ___and is highly susceptible to ___.

Back 285

One link in memory and is therefore highly susceptible to decay.

Front 286

Elaborative rehearsal is part of this hypothesis and supports this theory____, which state that test material will be ____if I take time to___.

Back 286

Dual code hypothesis; levels of processsing (deep being the best for memory retention and learning); better retaine if I take the time to truly understand it.

Front 287

Cognitive psychology is the study of___

Back 287

Thinking, processing and resoning.

Front 288

Problem solving; concepts; I organize my world through___; ex.

Back 288

How one represents the relationship btw two things; concepts; A bird is an animal that has wings and flies.

Front 289

Problem solv.; hypotheses are___used to___ and then to form___; ex.

Back 289

Ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts; Amimals w/wings are the ones that fly.

Front 290

Mental set definition; does this help or hurt future problem solving.

Back 290

Preconceived notion of how to look at a problem; may help and allow for faster processing or hurt if the same mental set is applied indiscrimanately to problems; ex of help, A bird cage is good for housing birds.

Front 291

Problem solv; Schema is an _____gathered from ____that includes _____and ____.

Back 291

Organized bunch of knowledge, prior experiences, ideas about specific events or objects, the attributes that accompany them.

Front 292

Problem solv; Schemas and new events and objects are categorized based on ____; ex.

Back 292

How well they match the existing attributes of schemasl; a schema about birds might include wings, feather, flying, worms.

Front 293

Problem solv; what happens when a person learns that a ___is a ___that ____; what happens to the person's schema of birds?

Back 293

Penguins are birds that swim instead of fly and eat fish instead of worms; person may have to adust schema of birds or if this doesn't happen info could become distorted related to penguins.

Front 294

Scripts are ___; ex.

Back 294

Ideas about the way events typically unfold; when people go to the movies, they sit in their seats, turn off cellphones and are quiet.

Front 295

Prototypes are the ____; or ____; ex.

Back 295

Representative or usual type of an event or object; scientist is someone who is good in math and does not write poetry.

Front 296

Insight is___; name term that denotes insight___.

Back 296

Having a new perspective on an old problem; an a-ha! experience.

Front 297

Convergent thinking is the type of thinking used to ___; ex., defined by___.

Back 297

Find the one solution to a problem; Math is an example; both convergent and divergent thinking were first defined by J. P. Guilford.

Front 298

Divergent thinking is used when ____; example

Back 298

More than one possibility exists in a situation; playing chess or creative thinking are ex.

Front 299

In a group, divergent thinking comes into play w/the presence of____.

Back 299

Presence of a dissenter leads to divergent thinking.

Front 300

Functional fixedness is the idea that people develop ____about _____; From this the cannot ____ or think ___; ex.

Back 300

Closed minds, the functions of certain objects; they cannot hink of creative uses, think divergently; a bird cage is only good for housing birds.

Front 301

The sum total of possible moves that one might make in order to solve a problem is known as__

Back 301

Problem space.

Front 302

Algorithms are problem solving strategies that consider___and eventually ___; Drawback of algorithms.

Back 302

Every possible solution , hit on the correct solution; This mmethod of problem solving may take a great deal of time.

Front 303

These type of problem solving strategies cannot guarantee a solution but are faster than _____; these strategies use____.

Back 303

Heuristics; an algorithms; rules of thmb or shortcuts based on what has worked in the past in problem solving.

Front 304

metacognition.

Back 304

Referes to the process of thinking about my own thingking and might involve knowing what solving strategies to apply and when to apply them or knowing how to adapt my thining to new situations.

Front 305

Mediation is the ____that occurs btw ___and __; It reminds me ___ or ____ based on _____.

Back 305

Intervening mental process, stimulus and response; what to do or how to respond based on ideas or past learning.

Front 306

Computer simulation models are designed to ___; Who first introduced these models; first name for these, later name.

Back 306

Solve problems as humans do; Allen newell and Herbert Simon; first called the logic theorist and then revamped it to the general prblem solver.

Front 307

Deductive reasoning leads to a ____that must____; ex.

Back 307

Specific conclusion that must follow from the info given; all coats are blue. she weras a coat. therefore her coat must be blue.

Front 308

Inductive reasoning leads to ____that are ___; ex.

Back 308

General rules tat are inferred from specifics; Most of the Ph.D. students I know studied hard for their GRE. Therefore, studying hard prabably helps one do well on the test and then get into grad school.

Front 309

Logical reasoning errors, name three.

Back 309

Atmosphere effect, semantic effect, confirmation bias.

Front 310

Atmosphere effect is a logical reasoning error that demonstrates when a ____

Back 310

Conclusion is influenced by the way info is phrased.

Front 311

Semantic effect is a logical reasoning error that demonstrates__

Back 311

Believing in conclusions b/c of what you know or think to be correct rather than what logically follows from the info given.

Front 312

Confirmation bias is a logical reasoning error for this reason___.

Back 312

Remembering and using info that confirms what I already think.

Front 313

Decision making is working on ____until an ___.

Back 313

Solving a problem until an acceptable solution is found.

Front 314

Research indicates that the process of decision making; reaching a solution is usually based on some ___; which could either be ____; and the solution is usually found by ____.

Back 314

Sort of assumption; ratio-nal or irrational; relying on reasoning and/or emotion.

Front 315

Common decision-making techniques include these in part.

Back 315

List of pros and cons, flipping a coin, divination God, consulting an expert.

Front 316

Intelligence has a definition that is ___; however, most tend to agree that intelligence is the capacity to ____

Back 316

Frequently debated; Is the capacity to use knowledge to improve achievement in an environment.

Front 317

Info processing; reaction time

Back 317

Most frequently used to measure cognitive processing.

Front 318

Reaction time is also known as___; what takes place throughout the lifespan in relation to reaction time as a tool to measure cognitive processing.

Back 318

Latency; rosponse speed for all types of tasks declines significantly w/age.

Front 319

Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins concerning info processing suggested that people have ____in their ___that ____; ex.

Back 319

Hierarchical semantic networks, memory, group together related items;

Front 320

Heiracchical semantic networds in people's memory that group together related items according to Loftus and Collins suggest that the more___

Back 320

Closely related 2 items are, the more closely they are located in the hierarchy, and the more quickly a subject can link them.

Front 321

The more quickly a subject can ling two closely related items that are more closely located in the heirarch is an example of__.

Back 321

Faster reaction time and decreased latency.

Front 322

Ex. of Loftus and Collins herarchical semantic networks in people's memory___

Back 322

Subjects can answer true more quickly to the sentence "A canary is a bird, than they cn answer false to the sentence A toaster is a bird.

Front 323

Related to Cognitive Semantic Heirarchies Collins and Quillian ssert that people make ___btw___by ___the ___; further apart in the hierarchy result in ____.

Back 323

Decisions about the relations btw items by searching thecognitive semantic hierarchies; further apart in the hierarchy, longer it will take to see a connection.

Front 324

Searching and cognitive semantic hierarchies has also been termed___ or also known as this process___.

Back 324

Parallel distributive processing PDP; connectionism.

Front 325

In the long term semantic mem network proposed by Loftus and Collins; it takes ___btw___than ___; for this reason.

Back 325

Longer to make associations btw pictures than btw words; probably b/c pictures must mentally e put into words b4 associations can be made.

Front 326

Semantic priming in what kind of a task____; is the presentation of ___b4 the ___;

Back 326

A word-recognition task is the presentation of a related item (such as test) b4 the next item (such as GRE).

Front 327

Semantic priming has this effect on word recognition reaction time; explain why this occurs.

Back 327

Decreases reaction time b/c it activates the node of the second item in the semantic hierarchy.

Front 328

In contast to semantic priming and the effect of decreasing reaction time in a word recognition task as a result of activation of the node of the 2nd item in the semantic heirarchy; it would take ____to recognize the acronym GRE if it were ____by the work ___rather than by ____.

Back 328

Subjects to recognized the acronym GRE if it were preceded by the worl Lobster rather tahan by the word test.

Front 329

Stroop effect

Back 329

Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors, such as when the work yellow is printed w/blue ink.

Front 330

Bottom-up porcessing is recognizing an item or patterns from ___. Top down processing is ____.

Back 330

Bottom up is driven by data details (data driven). Top down is guided by larger concepts.

Front 331

Automatic processing is when a task is ___ b/c the task is ___.

Back 331

Effortlessly done; subsumed under a higher organization process.

Front 332

Eye movements and gaze durations are indicatiors of ___ while ___; Saccades are___.

Back 332

Info processing, reading; Eye movements from one fixation point to another are called saccades.

Front 333

Related to Cognitive Semantic Heirarchies Collins and Quillian ssert that people make ___btw___by ___the ___; further apart in the hierarchy result in ____.

Back 333

Decisions about the relations btw items by searching thecognitive semantic hierarchies; further apart in the hierarchy, longer it will take to see a connection.

Front 334

Searching and cognitive semantic hierarchies has also been termed___ or also known as this process___.

Back 334

Parallel distributive processing PDP; connectionism.

Front 335

In the long term semantic mem network proposed by Loftus and Collins; it takes ___btw___than ___; for this reason.

Back 335

Longer to make associations btw pictures than btw words; probably b/c pictures must mentally e put into words b4 associations can be made.

Front 336

Semantic priming in what kind of a task____; is the presentation of ___b4 the ___;

Back 336

A word-recognition task is the presentation of a related item (such as test) b4 the next item (such as GRE).

Front 337

Semantic priming has this effect on word recognition reaction time; explain why this occurs.

Back 337

Decreases reaction time b/c it activates the node of the second item in the semantic hierarchy.

Front 338

In contast to semantic priming and the effect of decreasing reaction time in a word recognition task as a result of activation of the node of the 2nd item in the semantic heirarchy; it would take ____to recognize the acronym GRE if it were ____by the work ___rather than by ____.

Back 338

Subjects to recognized the acronym GRE if it were preceded by the worl Lobster rather tahan by the word test.

Front 339

Stroop effect

Back 339

Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors, such as when the work yellow is printed w/blue ink.

Front 340

Bottom-up porcessing is recognizing an item or patterns from ___. Top down processing is ____.

Back 340

Bottom up is driven by data details (data driven). Top down is guided by larger concepts.

Front 341

Automatic processing is when a task is ___ b/c the task is ___.

Back 341

Effortlessly done; subsumed under a higher organization process.

Front 342

Eye movements and gaze durations are indicatiors of ___ while ___; Saccades are___.

Back 342

Info processing, reading; Eye movements from one fixation point to another are called saccades.

Front 343

Cognition and emotion; name three.

Back 343

These theories address the bio and cognitive components of emotion; James lange theory of emotion; cannon bad theory of emotion; stanley schachter and Jerome Singer Cognitive theory of emotion.

Front 344

This theory of emotion claims that bodily reactions to situations cause emotion;

Back 344

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Front 345

Jaems-Lange Theory of Emotion states that first this occurs then this takes place; ex.

Back 345

Phisiological responses are present in situations (crying, fleeing, trembling); we feel the emotion that comes w/theses bodily reaction; I feel scared b/c I am trembling.

Front 346

This theory of cognition and emotion states that emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously.

Back 346

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion.

Front 347

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion is also known as the ___; In emotional situations our ____and in the ___; ex.

Back 347

Body is cued to react in the brain (emotion) and in the body (bio response); I tremble and feel scared in response to danger.

Front 348

This cognitive emotion theory asserts that emotions are the porduct of physiological reactions but that cognitions are the missing link in the chain.

Back 348

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer cognitive theory of emotion or two factor theory of emotions.

Front 349

Schacter and Singer's theory is similar to ___emotion theory; however they argue that ____did not include this__-factor in the theory; A____; Since may different situations produce ____, how we ____is key to the Schachter Singer theory.

Back 349

James lange theory of emotion, in that it is agreed that emotions are the product of physiological reactions; Cognitions were missing in the James Lange theory, which states that a prticular bodily state is felt and since many different situations produce similar bodly reactions, how we interpret the physio boy reaction is key.

Front 350

The ____I _____, which ___ I___ according to Schacter and Singer cognitive theory of emotion; ex

Back 350

Cognition, attach to a situation determines, emotion, feel in response to physiological arousal; when a situation causes me to tremble, I may feel scared as the James Lange theory purports or I may feel anger, depending on the cognitions, ideas and thoughts I have about what emotion fits the situation.