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148 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the definition of Drug Dependence?
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It's the desire to self-administer a drug of abuse -- involves craving, lots of time/energy looking for drugs, and an impact on one's life.
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Drug Dependence is synonymous with:
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Addiction
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What is substance abuse? Is it the same as substance dependence?
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It's a pattern of drug abuse that doesn't quite meet criteria for dependence.
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Why do people take drugs?
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They produce a euphoric, pleasurable effect.
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What is the positive reward model of drug addiction?
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Addiction arises due to pleasurable effects of drugs.
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What is the physical dependence model of drug addiction?
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With repeated use, the euphoric effects of drugs diminish -- once addicted, there are unpleasant withdrawal symptoms that accompany "going off the drug." This leads to the idea that addiction persists to avoid the pain of withdrawal effects
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What are some burdens of addiction?
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Affects mortality, harms people and society, and its expensive!
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What does "comorbidity of addiction" refer to?
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It refers to the idea that drug abuse may coexist with other mental disorders -- comorbid patients (schizophrenia and alcoholism) show more loss of gray matter than either condition alone
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What's the definition of tolerance?
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Tolerance refers to the decreased sensitivity due to structural changes such that more drug is needed for the same effect.
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What will addicted rats do (that normal rats don't) when a red light goes on, indicating that there's no drug available?
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Addicted drugs continue to press the lever trying to get the drug. They even persist when a blue light comes on (indicating an impending shock).
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What are the three criteria a rat must meet to be considered "addicted?"
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1) Will attempt to self-administer drugs even when a light indicates no drug will be delivered.
2) Will attempt to self-administer drugs even when they will receive a shock when the drug is delivered. 3) Will attempt to self-administer drugs even if they have to work progressively harder to obtain it. |
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Where do addictive drugs cause dopamine release?
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The Nucleus Accumbens
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What is the reward pathway circuitry? (Limbic system)
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VTA --> Lateral hypothalamus, VP, NA, and cortex.
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What is the Incentive Salience theory of Addiction?
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It's the idea that repeated exposure to addictive drugs change brain circuits that regulate the attribution of incentive salience to stimuli (meaning that it produces physical changes). Contact with the drug/drug associated stimuli evokes wanting and causes the user to approach and consume the drug.
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Does the Incentive Salience Theory of Addiction resemble positive or negative feedback?
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Positive.
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What's the definition of Sensitization?
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It refers to the increased sensitivity to the incentive motivational effects of drugs and drug-associative stimuli
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What is Incentive motivation?
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Increased wanting of something (drugs)
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What is the definition Incentive Salience, exactly?
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It's a conditioned motivational response in the brain. It makes rewards wanted. Causes approach and consumption -- guides motivated behavior.
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What are two categories (and examples) of drugs that activate the Reward Circuit?
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Dopamine: amphetamine and cocaine -- act on dopamine terminals to break down enzymes that remove and break dopamine
Opioids: morphine derivatives and heroine. |
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What are some anatomical changes in dendritic spines associated with drug addiction?
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Increased length of dendritic spines, increased density of spines, increased number of branched spines.
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What is SENSITIZED when someone is hooked on Meth?
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The psychomotor response to the drug is sensitized -- less drug is needed to reach the same amount of stimulation
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What are 3 qualities of Incentive Stimuli?
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1. They are attractive -- approach is directed towards them.
2. They are "wanted" -- animals will perform a task to obtain them. 3. They energize appetitive instrumental actions. |
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How are some ways we can measure incentive value in animals?
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We measure how hard/intense/fast/often animal works at cue to get stimuli.
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What's pimozide?
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It's a dopamine receptor antagonist. It's significant because it blocks the MOTIVATION to get drug, not the euphoria experienced with the drug!!
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What is the James-Lange Theory of emotion?
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Emotions are caused by physiological events, and differ due to different physiological responses
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What is the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion?
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The cerebral cortex is involved in interpreting the signals; in turn, the cortex triggers emotion and physiological responses
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What's the key difference between the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion?
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Autonomic responses and emotion diverge after perception -- accounts for subjective experience and context
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What does Schacter's Cognitive Theory propose emotions arise from?
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1) Non-specific physiological activation due to stimulus.
2) Cognitive interpretation due to context This involves a feedback loop informing future situations. |
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When we say "physiological changes" or "activation," what are we referring to?
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Respiration, heart rate, skin conductance.
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What part of your cortex is activated when you lie?
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Pre-frontal cortex
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What are plutchik's 8 emotions? (hint: 4 pairs of opposites)
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Joy and Sadness
Affection and Disgust Anger and Fear Expectation and Surprise |
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What did Darwin think about Emotions?
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He thought that emotions and facial expressions shared a common ancestor. He made this observation based on the similarities between facial musculature and nerves in humans and primates
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What are the three primate expressions that Redican described?
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Grimace -- Fear or surprise
Tense mouth -- Anger Play Face -- Like the human laugh |
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Does forcing yourself to smile actually make you happier? What kind of implications does this have on evolutionary psychology?
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Forcing yourself to smile actually does have an effect on your affect. This has lead to a bunch of studies about how natural selection can shape behavior. For example, emotional adaptation may coordinate responses to solve selective problems, like choosing a mate, avoiding predators, etc.
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Why do patients with Parkinson's have vacant expressions?
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They've lost control of their facial nerve (since they never smile, this actually leads to some depression).
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So what's up with the "Recognizing Facial Expressions of Emotion: Cultural Differences" study?
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Well, it involved asking three groups of people (Western literate, Non-Western literate, and Isolated nonliterate) to identify specific facial expressions. Turns out not everything is particularly easy to identify. Except for happiness. Everybody knows what happiness looks like.
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What are some self-stimulation sites in the rodent brain?
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Self-stimulation activates the Medial Forebrain Bundle that goes from the VTA to frontal areas that include the Nucleus Accumbens and Cortex.
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What is Decorticate Rage?
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Turns out that if you give a dog a cortical lesion, they might exhibit sudden, intense rage. This leads to the idea that the cortex is responsible for rage, or at least for controlling subcortical structures. This theory doesn't work in rats, although stimulating the hypothalamus will make a rat very angry.
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What's the Papez Circuit?
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Discovered/coined by James Papez, this circuit includes the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, the anterior thalamus, the cingulate cortex, the hippocampus, and the fornix.
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What is Kluver-Bucy Syndrome?
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It's a set of symptoms that arises from bilateral temporal lobe and amygdala lesions -- results in reduced fear and anxiety. In these patients there's a clear disconnect between sensory stimulus and emotional reaction!
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What's the amygdala do?
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It's involved in acquisition, storage, and expression of fear memory. It's key to the mediation of fear.
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Do Distinct Brain Circuits mediate emotions? (Just a slide to memorize)
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Different regions of the amygdala react to the stimulus and send a message to the central nucleus of the amygdala. The central nucleus then transmits information to brainstem centers.
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What is a proposed mechanism for SM's impairment?
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Once fear is induced, the execution of a fear response is known to depend on hypothalamic nuclei and on nuclei of the brainstem's periaqueductal rey, both of which receive downward projections from amygdala nuclei
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So... what three things interact when the brain has to make feelings?
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Immediately present stimuli, amygdala-dependent emotional arousal, and hippocampal-dependent explicit memory.
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What emotion is theoretically defensive, and why?
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Aggression -- it causes behaviors that are intended to protect an individual from threat or harm (motivated by fear)
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Is testosterone closely related to aggression?
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Not really... neither castration nor increases in testosterone have a strong effect on aggression.
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Why might criminals have high testosterone?
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It could be a RESULT of aggressive behavior, not a cause.
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What about aggressions relation to serotonin?
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NOW we're talking. There is a negative correlation between serotonin and aggression -- mice lacking serotonin are hyperaggressive. Low serotonin levels are found in humans in alcohol-induced violence, excessive military violence and in children with poor impuse control.
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Do distinct areas of the brain represent distinct emotions?
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There are hotspots of activation, but single areas aren't really responsible for single emotions -- representation is typically distributed over many brain regions.
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What did the study about neural correlates of long-term love find, when partners were shown pictures of either their partner or other acquaintances?
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Post scan emotion ratings were way higher after seeing their partners.
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Are rewards associated with long-term partners similar to new love?
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Yes. In fact, individuals self-reporting intense love for a long-term partner/spouse show significant neural activation in dopamine-rich reward regions of the VTA/SN in response to images of their partner (vs. acquaintance)
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The longer you're married, the more________
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Your Nucleus Accumbens, Caudate nucleus is activated when you see them.
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The more you have sex with your partner, the more __________
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Your posterior hippocampus is activated when you see them.
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With respect to car crash statistics, what seems to be the main cause?
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Sleepiness (drifting off the road, rear ending, etc)
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What are 4 functions of sleep, not including memory consolidation?
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Adaptive response
Restoration and repair Adjusting metabolic needs Avoiding bad things in the environment |
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What are five immediate effects of sleepiness and fatigue?
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Impaired reaction time, judgement, and vision
Problems with info processing and short term memory Decreased performance, vigilance, and motivation Increased moodiness and aggressive behaviors Increased "microsleeps" -- brief (2/3 seconds) sleep episodes |
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What are two physiological indicators of sleep deprivation?
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Increase in cortisol concentrations and increase in sympathovagal balance
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What is the effect of sleep deprivation on leptin, ghrelin, hunger, and appetite?
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Sleep leads to less leptin and more ghrelin, which causes us to eat more.
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Is sleep just the absence of wakefulness?
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Nope. It's active, complex, regulated, essential, etc.
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What are three ways to measure sleep?
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Behaviorally, electrographically, and neuronal state
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What is atonia?
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It's the lack of normal muscular tension or tonus.
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Which model of brain chemistry (__ promoting hormones) and sleep initiation do we support?
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Sleep promoting chemical
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What is characteristic of slow wave sleep in the brain?
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Normally large amplitudes
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In REM sleep, our muscles go ______
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slack.
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Is REM sleep longer in the begining of the night or at the end?
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The end.
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Which comes first, SWS or REM?
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SWS
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How long is the basic sleep cycle?
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90 minutes
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What's the TMN?
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Tuberomammilary Nucleus -- in the hypothalamus; has histaminergic projections to the forebrain that cause and maintain arousal
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What's the VLPO?
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Ventral Lateral Preoptic Area -- projects to the TMN and brainstem raphe and locs coerulus -- promotes sleep by inhibiting TMN
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What happens if you lesion the VLPO?
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You die.
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What generates the rapid eye movements during REM?
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Pons
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What promotes a wake-like state in the cortex?
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The reticular formation
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What are Circadian Rhythms?
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Self-sustained or endogenous biological rhythms;
In the organism's natural environment, circadian rhythms are normally entrained/synchronized to 90 minutes |
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What can provide entrainment?
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Daylight, alarm clocks, some other cues
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If you put a human in a cave (i.e. no ability to synchronize) then how long is their sleep/wake cycle?
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24.2 hours
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What are some common elements of the design of circadian oscillators?
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Biochemical and genetic clocks -- feed off each other
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What part of the brain should we lesion if we wanna destroy circadian rhythms?
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus
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What are the 5 criterion for a circadian rhythm?
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Persist in the absence of periodic influences
Retain near 34-hr periods when the environment adopts very different period Change phase slowly after an abrupt change in the environment Do not revert after entraining to a new phase Drift away from 24 h period without synchronizers |
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Is growth hormone release an example of circadian rhythm?
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NO! if you don't sleep, it's not released
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Are mammals the only ones who rely on a single clock?
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Yep.
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What kind of cells project on the SCN?
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Specialized ganglion cells
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What is the hypothesis about alertness and entrained temperature?
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Interactions between alertness and temperature suggest that temperature circadian rhythm may have a causal role in sleep induction
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What's going on with "sleep and gating?"
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There's a steady buildup of sleep pressure and a sinusoidal fluctuation of circadian alerting -- when they synchronize, we go to sleep.
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What is learning?
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The process of acquiring new information
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What is memory?
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The specific information stored in the brain and the ability to retrieve that information
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What is plasticity?
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The experience-dependent changes in structure and function
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What are the two categories of learning?
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Associative and non-associative
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What is non-associative learning?
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It involves learning about a single stimulus that is presented once or repeated several times
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What is habituation?
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It's a decreased response to repeated presentations of a stimulus -- not due to fatigue or adaptation. The output decreases due to changes in central processing.
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What is DIShabituation?
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This occurs when a strong, novel stimulus of a different sense causes a habituated response to increase again.
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With habituation, is it slower or faster for more intense stimuli?
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Slower!
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What are aplysia, and what exactly do we study?
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They are a kind of animal with a gill/siphon reflex. If you touch the siphon, the gill and siphon withdrawal. We specifically study the effect of tactile or electrical stimulation of their abdominal ganglia.
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If we touch the siphon repeatedly, what happens?
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Smaller gill withdrawal
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How do we know this is't due to fatigue?
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When we touch the head, we elicit the full response -- results in dishabituation
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What happens in short-term habituation?
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Less NT is released
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What happens in long-term habituation?
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Long term habituation results in fewer synapses
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What is sensitization?
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The response is greater than the baseline level due to previous exposure/prior stimulation
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What's the dual process theory?
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It's the theory that a stimulus activates 2 systems:
1) The stimulus-response pathway: a reflex response, responsible for habituation 2) That state system: activates the general arousal of the animal. It's not always fully activated, but this system is responsible for sensitization. The consequence of the repeated presentation will reflect the sum of the 2 competing systems |
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What are some brain changes that underlie simple, non-associative learning?
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Changes in synaptic strength, changes in neuronal structure, & the simple addition or subtraction of neurons
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What are 4 synaptic changes that may store memories?
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Changes involving synaptic transmitters
Changes involving interneuron modulation Formation of new synapses Rearrangement of synaptic input |
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What did Donald Hebb propose?
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That when two neurons are repeatedly activated together, their synaptic connection will become stronger
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What are cell assemblies?
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They are ensembles of neurons that are linked via hebbian synapses -- could store memory traces
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What is tetanus?
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It's a brief burst of electrical stimulation that triggers thousands of axon potentials
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What is LTP?
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It's a stable and enduring increase in the effectiveness of synapses -- occurs in the hippocampus
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What is LTP at the biomolecular level?
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It's the insertion of more AMPA receptors into the membrane.
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How does the process of LTP happen?
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Weak stimulation of the presynaptic neuron causes glutamate to go bind to AMPA -- triggers partial depolarization. Mg ions block NMDA receptors, but if AMPA allows neuron to get depolarized then Mg leaves. Calcium enters and causes a biochemical cascade. Postsynaptic neuron causes nitric oxide to go back to presynaptic cell, enhancing NT release
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What are 3 pieces of evidence that LTP is the process of learning?
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There is a similar time course of LTP associated with learning, blocking LTP impairs learning, and training induces LTP
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What are some cerebral changes that result from training?
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Animals that got the enriched condition had higher actetylcholinerase activity and a heavier cerebral cortex, due to increased cortical thickness.
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What might an enriched learning experience lead to?
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Better learning and problem solving, quicker recovery from conditions like malnutrition, might protect against age-related declines in memory
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What is neurogenesis?
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The birth of new neurons.
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What can can enhance neurogenesis?
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Exercise, environmental enrichment, and memory tasks
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What is arousal?
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It's a global level of alertness, and it's controlled in party by activity in the reticular formation.
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What is selective attention?
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It's a process of brain activation by which we focus on one or more specific stimuli -- when we are attentive to our studying, we're attending to the sensory stimuli and churning around internal cognitive representations
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What is the cocktail party effect?
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It's when the attentional focus of an individual is selectively enhanced to filter out other stimuli.
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What is overt attention?
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It's when the attentional focus coincides with the sensory orientation
e.g. listening to an orchestra |
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What's covert attention?
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Our ability to focus to a subset of the sensory inputs -- a task of mental focusing (multi-tasking)
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What did Helmholtz do?
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Demonstrated that we can mentally shift our focus (while maintaining fixation point) to focus on other stimuli (letters on a screen)
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What is dichotic presentation?
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Stimultaneous delivery of different stimuli to bothe ears at same time
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What is shadowing?
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When you listen to two things in different ears and you have to attend to one, then report on the other one.
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What is inattentional blindness?
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It's when you fail to perceive nonattended stimuli
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What is change blindness?
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It's the failure to notice changes when comparing two alternating static visual scenes.
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What is a divided attention task?
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It's when you ask a subject to process two or more simultaneous stimuli
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What is our attentional spotlight?
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It's when you highlight stimuli for processing by scanning the environment
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What is bottom up processing?
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It's a fast process, it's involuntary, and it depends on the quality of the sensory stimulus
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What is exogenous attention?
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Same thing as bottom-up attention. IT's reflexive.
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Lower order sensory inputs trigger processing by higher-order systems.
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Bottom-up processing.
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What is top-down processing?
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It's the voluntary allocation of resources to particular sensory inputs
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Which kind of attention is the slowest?
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Top-down.
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Attention is a _______ resource
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Limited
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What is the attentional bottleneck?
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It's when you select things that you're going to attend to.
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What does the stroop task get at?
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It gets at the way that irrelevant information interferes at the semantic level - at a later stage in attentional processing.
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What is a feature search?
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Find a target item with a unique visual feature not shared with any distractors among those distracters
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What is a conjunction search?
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You have to find a target item among distractors that is defined by a unique conjunction of features that IS shared by those distracters
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Which search is more difficult and why?
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Conjunction; the distracters share some features with the target, so the target doesn't pop out.
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What is the trend of age and spinal cord injury?
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Peak at 20 years old. Because we're reckless
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What is the prevalence of depression?
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Persons 45-64 years old, women, other races, previous marriages, etc
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What is depression characterized by?
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Unhappy moods, loss of interest, energy and appetite, difficulty concentrating, and restless agitation
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What's the evidence for a genetic link in depression?
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There is a concordance rate of 60% in identical twins compared to 20% for fraternal twins
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What are the three brain changes that occur with depression?
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Increased blood flow to FC and amygdala,
Decreased blood flow to areas involving attention and language Cortex of RH is thinner |
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What are the changes in sleep in depression?
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REM occurs quite quickly but the latency is low -- and increases in first half of the night, stages 3 and 4 are gone.
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What is the monoamine hypothesis of depression?
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Basically that our monoamine levels are low
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What do MAO inhibitors do?
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Disrupt inactivation of transmitters
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What do tricyclics do?
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Inhibit uptake of a bunch of monoamines
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What are SSRIs?
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They're selective uptake inhibitors for serotonin
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What are some things that call into question the Monoamine hypothesis of depression?
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Long lag time between onset of treatment and therapeutic benefit
No deficit in serotonin has been documented in depressed patients Experimental decreases in serotonin does not produce depression |
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What is the inflammatory theory of depression?
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An inflammation process in the brain is causing depression
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What are some depression treatments based on neuromodulation?
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ECT, TMS, Vagus nerve stimulation, and DBS
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What is the percent remission for ECT?
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86%
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