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259 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is homeostasis?
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A constant internal environmental state which animals will try to keep
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The nervous system has which four functions?
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Detect (receive input), Recognize and Decide (integrate), Execute (respond)
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The nervous system is divided in to which two branches?
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Central Nervous System (CNS) , Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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What does the central nervous system do?
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Receives and process information
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What does the CNS process information to?
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Brain and Spinal Cord
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What four functions does the brain have?
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Receives and processes sensory information, Initiates responses, Stores memories, Generates thoughts and emotions
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Which two functions does the spinal cord have?
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Conducts signals to and from brain, Controls reflex activities
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What is the main task of the PNS
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Transmit signals between CNS and rest of body
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The PNS transmits signals through which two neurons?
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Motor and Sensory Neurons
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Motor neurons do what?
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Carry signals from CNS that control activities of muscles and glands
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Motor neurons carry signals from CNS where?
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Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System
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The Somatic Nervous System does what?
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Controls vonluntary movements by activating skeletal muscles
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What does the Autonomic Nervous System do?
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Controls involuntary responses by influencing organs, glands and smooth muscles
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The autonomic nervous system is divided in to which two divisions?
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Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
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What does the sympathetic division of the ANS do?
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Prepares the body for stressful or energetic activitiy
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What does the parasympathethic division of the ANS do?
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Dominates during times of rest and rumination
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Describe the process in which a stressful event would be triggered
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The CNS would inform the PNS of a danger. The PNS would ask motor neurons to move, These would trigger the ANS sympathethic division
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What was Walter Canons explanation for Voodoo death? (Citation)
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Overactivity of sympathetic nervous system causes voodoo death. Stress kicks in to the point that blood vessels rupture causing fatal drop in blood pressure. (1942)
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What was Richters argument for voodoo death? (Citation)
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The parasympathetic nervous system is triggered and causes heart to slow down to point of death(1957)
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What do neurons do?
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They bring inforamtion to the brain, store memories, reach decisions and control the activity of muscles
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What are neurons assisted by?
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Glial cells
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List the four Principal Parts of a Cell
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Soma (cell body), Dentries, Axon(Nerve Fibre), Terminal Buttons
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What is a soma?
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Largest part of the neuron which contains the mechanism that control metabolism and maintenance of the cell
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What are dendrites?
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Tree like growths attached to Soma receive messages from other neurons
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What are axons?
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Strings attached to soma which carry messages (action potentials) to other neurons
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Through what does a axon enter in to a soma?
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Axon hillock
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What are terminal buttons?
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Ends of axons which secrete a substance (neurotransmitter) which passes in to next cell
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What covers axons?
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Myelin sheath
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What do myelin sheaths do?
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Protect Axons and speed up communication
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What are Notes of Ranvier?
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Gaps in the Myelin sheath
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What are the gaps called between myelin layers?
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Nodes of Ranvier
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What do Nodes of Ranvier do?
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Generate electric energy
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List seven jobs of Glial cells
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Provide support for CNS, Clear dead cells,Help growth in right direction, Maintain favorable chemical environment, Control blood flow, Produce myelin, Involved in thought
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A cluster of cell bodeis in the CNS is called?
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Nuclei
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A cluster of cell bodies in the PNS is called?
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Ganglia
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A ganglia is what?
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A cluster of cell bodies in the PNS
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A nuclei is what?
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A cluster of cell bodies in the CNS
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What is a bundle of axons called in the CNS?
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Tract
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What is a tract?
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A bundle of axons in the CNS
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What is a bundle of axons called in the PNS?
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Nerves
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What are nerves?
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A bundle of axons in the PNS
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Who discovered synaptic clefts?
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Cajal
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List three broad categories of neurotransmitters
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Amino acids, Monoamines, Peptides
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What is the space between neurons called?
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Synaptic cleft or gap
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Speed of conduction depends on which three factors?
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Thickness of axon, Presence of mylenation, Number of synapses
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What do sensory neurons do?
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It detects change in the external and internal environment and sends information to CNS
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What do motor neurons do?
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Control contraction of a muscle or secretion of a gland
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Where are motor neurons located?
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Central Nervous System
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Where is an interneuron located?
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Within the central nervous system
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You touch something hot, what happens on neuron level?
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Sensory neurons fire and release neurotransmitters in spine, this stimulates interneurons and lets them fire, this excites motor neurons causing them to let go.
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What three things can stress mean?
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The stressor that creates an imbalance, Response of your body to it, or both
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What is an external environmental stress called?
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Stressor
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What is a response to stressor as stress called?
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Response
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Harmful stress is called?
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Distress
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Beneficial stress is called?
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Eustress
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What is aleostasis?
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A moving set point of homeostasis depending on situation
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What is stress physiology? (Citation)
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The study of the things that upset the physiological balance and a bodies actions to re-establish it (Sapolsky, 1993)
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Who developed the first Stress Model?
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Walter Canon 1932
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What was the first Stress Model called?
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Fight or Flight Model
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What does the Fight or Flight model mean?
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If out of homeostasis autonomic nervous system will cause fight or flight reflex
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Which gland excretes what in case of stress?
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Adrenal gland excretes adrenaline
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What was the Fight or Flight Model developed in to?
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General Adaption Syndrome (GAS Model)
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Who developed the General Adaptation Syndrome
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Selye (1956)
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What does the General Adaptation Syndrome mean?
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Stressor does not matter only that there is stress
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What are the three stages involved in GAS?
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Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
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In the GAS model what does alarm mean?
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Mobilisation to meet and resist stressor
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In the GAS model what does Resistance mean?
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Coping with and resistance to stressor
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In the GAS model what does exhaustion mean?
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Resistance fails, coping exhausted
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Why will stress kill you?
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Because body focuses too much on resistance to care about rest of body
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What kind of stressed are we designed to cope with?
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Short-term physical stress
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The problem with the GAS model is?
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It ignores psychological factors
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What is the HPA axis?
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Hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal cortex
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What happens when the HPA axis is activated?
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The hypothalamus induces the anterior pituitary gland to secrete ACTH which makes the human adrenal cortex produce cortisol
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What else are sensory nerves called?
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Afferents
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What else are motor nerves called?
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Efferents
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List three ways to look at the brain
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Electroencephalography, PET imaging, fMRI
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What does an EEG use?
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Electric activity
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What does PET imaging use?
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Radioactive substance in to brain
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What does the cerebellum control?
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Balance, posture and movement
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A distinction between which parts in the brain can be made?
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Brain stem and cerebrum
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What does the brain stem regulate?
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Vital reflex activities
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What does the cerebrum control?
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Everything but vital reflex activities
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The cerebrum can be divided in to which three divisions?
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Forebrain/prosencephalon, midbrain/ mesencephalon, Hindbrain/ Rhombencephalon
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Hindbrain consists of what?
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Medulla, Pons, Cerebellum
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Medulla and pons control?
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Breathing, heart rate other vital functions
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Cerebellum does what?
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Contributes to movement
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Limbic systems includes which 5 structures?
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Olfectory bulb, Hippocampus, Amygdala, Cingulate Gyrus of the Cerebral Cortex
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What does the pituitary gland do?
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Receives information from hypothalamus, releases hormones
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What does the thalamus do?
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Process of input (except olfactory)
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What does the basal ganglia do? (3)
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Control movement, learning and remember how to do , Coherent behavioural units
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What does the basal forebrain do?
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Arousal, wakefulness and attention
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What does Hippocampus do?
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Storing certain kinds of memories (individual events)
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Which area is the main source of input to the cerebral cortex?
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Thalamus
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List the four lobes
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Paretal, Temporal, Occipital, Frontal
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What are laminae?
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Layers of cell bodies that are parallel to the surface of the cortex
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What are columns?
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Cells of the cortex perpendicular to the laminae
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Where is the Occipital lobe and what does it do?
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At the back of the brain, Sight
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Where is and what does: Parietal Lobe (4)
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Between Frontal and Occipital Lobe. Body sensation like movement detection, spatial orientation, calculation, some aspects of recognition
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Where and what: Temporal lobe (4)
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At the temples. Auditory, complex vision, speech comprehension, emotional and motivational behaviour
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Where and What: Frontal Lobe (5)
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Front of brain. Fine movement (precentral gyrus)sustained attention, planning and thinking, some aspects of memory, conscience and conscious appreciation of emotion
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Frontal lobe contains which two sections?
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Primary motor cortex and Prefrontal cortex
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Gray matter is?
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Packed with cell bodies and dendrites
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White matter is?
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Myelinated axons which receive input from gray matter and send to spinal cord
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Hindbrains contains?
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Medulla, pons and cerebellum
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Medulla does?
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Vital reflexes
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Pons does?
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Brdige between brain parts
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Cerebellum does?
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Movement
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Midbrain structure?
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Tectum (roof), Tegementum, Substantia nigra
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Tectum has which two structures?
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Superior and inferior colliculus
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What does substantia nigra do?
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Readiness for movement
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What is main fuel of brain and what is it dependent on?
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Glucose/oxygen
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What does the blood-brain barrier do?
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It keeps chemicals out of brain
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How do chemicals pass in to brain?
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Passively (when dissolved), Active transport
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What does a resting neuron do?
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Keep an electrical gradient (polarization) slightly negative
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Resting potential is what?
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Readiness of neruon
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What does resting potential keep in balance and through what?
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Sodium-potassium, through sodium-potassium pump and concentration gradient
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What is the threshold of excitation?
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Depolarised beyond this, sodium and potassium channels open
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What is meant by plasticity of the brain?
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The brain's anatomy changes constantly
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List the five stages in the development of neurons
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Proliferation, migration, differntaition, myelination, synaptogenesis
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What is proliferation?
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Production of new cells in to neurons and glia
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What is meant by migration in a brain context?
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Proliferated cells migrate to different places
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After migration of cells what happens?
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Differentiation, forming in to axons and dendrites
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After differentiation what happens in the brain?
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Myelination. Glial cells produce myelin cover over many decades
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What is the final stage of the development of neurons?
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Synaptogenesis. Production and discard of synapses
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The hippocampus receives what?
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Constant new neurons in order to learn
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Axons connect?
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Specifically
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How does an axon find the right path?
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Chemicals
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What is meant by nerual Darwinism?
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In the development of the nervous system, we start with more neurons and synapses than we can keep. Synapses form with only approximate accuracy, and then a selection process keeps some and rejects others
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What is a nerve growth factor?
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A protein that promotes the survival and growth
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What is apoptosis?
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If an axon does not make contact with an appropriate postsynpatic cell it will kill itself over time
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How are NGF and apoptosis connected?
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NGF tells presynpatic cell that postsynpatic cell receives input telling it to not kill itself
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NGF is?
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A neurothrophin
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What are neurotrophins?
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Chemicals that promote the survival and activity of neurons
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What is the problem with far transfer?
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There is no evidence that doing one difficult task will help you with another difficult task
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What is an antisaccade task?
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Looking away from a powerful attention-getter
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Adolescence is a phase of what?
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High impulsiveness
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What is diaschsis?
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Decreased activity of surviving neurons after damage to other nereuons
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What are three factors that limit axon regeneration in mammals?
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Creation of scar tissue, Neruons on the two sides of cut pull apart, Glial cells that react to CNS damage release chemicals that inhibit axon growth
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What are collateral sprouts?
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New branches, formed by new axons after old one was damaged
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What is denervation super-sensitivity?
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If most of the axons that transmit dopamine to some brain area die or become inactive, the remaining dopamine synapses become more responsive, more easily stimulate
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Why is denervation super-sensitivity harmful in some cases?
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Incase of spinal injury many axons are injured. Postsynpatic neurons develop increased sensitivity causing even mild input to produce enhanced response
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What does deafferented mean?
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If a being has lost their sensory input but can still use a limb because motor nerves are still existent
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What is the Bell-Magendie Law?
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In spinal cord: Dorsal roots carry sensory information, ventral roots motor information
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Thalamus and Hypothalamus form what?
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Diencephalon
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What is the diencephalon?
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Thalamus and Hypothalamus
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What is the telencephalon?
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The forebrain apart from the thalamus and hypothalamus
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What do superior and inferior colliculus of tectum do?
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Sensory processing: Inferior hearing, Superior: Vision
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What is a gyrus?
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A protuberance on the surface of the brain
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What is a sulcus?
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A fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another
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What is a Fissure?
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A long deep sulcus
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What is front and back terms in brain context?
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Rostral and Caudal
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Forebrain consists of which six structures?
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Basal ganglia, Corpus Callosum, Cerebral cortex, Limbic system, Thalamus, Hypothalamus
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Rough brain overview
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Distinction between brain stem (below cerebral hemispheres), cerebrum (on top of brain stem)
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The cerebrum has how many hemispheres?
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2
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The forebrain can be divided in to which two structures?
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Diencephalon, Telenecephalon
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The hindbrain can be divided in to which two structures?
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Metencephalon, Myelencephalon
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Specific knowledge! Cerebellum does what more than just movement?
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Damping down excessive movement, implicit learning and implicit memories
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What is the tegmentum good for?
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Attention and arousal
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Which important nuclei are found in the midbrain?
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Periagueductal gray and red nucleus
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What is the periaqueductal gray good for?
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Pain reducing effects of opiate drugs
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What is the red nucleus good for?
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Receives motor information from the basal ganglia
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What, on neural level, leads to Parkinsons?
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Depletion of dopamine in the substantia nigra
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What is straddling the hindbrain and the midbrain?
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Reticular Activating System
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Where is the Reticular Activating System positioned?
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Straddling hindbrain and midbrain
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What is the RAS good for? (2)
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Maintaining a person's state of arousal, attention and sleep, Reflexes for movement, heart-beat and blood circulation
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What maintains a person's state of arousal and attention?
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Reticular Activating System
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How many nuclei are within the Reticular activating system?
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Roughly 100
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Where are the Locus Coerulus and the Raphé Nuclei situated?
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Reticular Activating System
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What important nuclei are in the Reticular Activating System?
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Locus Coeruleus and Rhaphé nuclei
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Which nucleus produces noradrenalin?
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Locus Coeruleus
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What does the Locus Coeruleus produce?
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Noradrenalin
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What does the Raphé Nucleus produce?
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Serotonin
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Which nucleus produces serotonin?
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Raphé Nucleus
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What is the cerebellum comprised of?
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Multilayered neo-cortex (mainly grey matter), Subcortical tissue (white matter)
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What does the left hemisphere specialise on to a degree?
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Language processing
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What is comprised of multi-layered neo cortex and subcortical tissue?
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Cerebrum
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Which hemisphere is, to a degree, specialised in language processing?
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Left
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The right hemisphere is specialised in what to a degree? (3)
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Visuo-spatial perception (looking a pictures), aspects of emotion, Music skills/appreciation
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Visuo-spatial perception means what?
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Looking at pictures
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Visuo-spatial perception and some aspects of emotions are, to some degree, located in which hemisphere?
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Right
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Interior structures are what?
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Symmetrical, like neocortex
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Sub-cortical structure includes what?
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Limbic system
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The paritial and the frontal lobe are separated through what?
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Central fissure
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The central fissure separates what?
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Frontal and Parietal Lobe
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Overall, limbic system does what? (3)
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Motivation, Appetites and urges basic for survival, Main centre for "unconscious/raw" emotion
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What does the hippocampus do?
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Essential role in laying down long-term memories, Acquisition of new memories, Motivation, Appetites and urges basic for survival
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What is the Main centre for "unconscious/raw" emotion?
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Limbic system
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What is Essential role in laying down long-term memories and Acquisition of new memories?
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Hippocampus
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What area controls memory?
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Hippocampus (long-term), Basal ganglia (learning how to do something and remembering it), Amygdala (emotional memory)
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The basal ganglia is linked up with what?
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Higher cerebral structures
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Higher cerebral areas are closely linked to what?
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Basal ganglia
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What are meningeal layers?
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Protective structure, which supplies blood and cerbro-spinal fluid
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What creates protective structure, and supplies blood and cerbro-spinal fluid?
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Meningeal layers
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What are ventricles?
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Interconnected cavities, continuous with spinal canal
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Interconnected cavities, continuous with spinal canal are called?
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Ventricles
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What else are ventricles called?
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Lumens
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What are Lumens?
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Ventricles
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What are ventricles filled with?
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Cerebrospinal fluid
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What is cerebrospinal fluid?
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A clear fluid in the ventricles
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How is cerebrospinal fluid produced?
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Choriod plexus
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What do choriod plexi produce?
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Cerebrospinal fluid
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What does cerebrospinal fluid do? (3)
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Support the brain which floats in it by cushioning it from shock, Nourishes brain, Removes waste matter
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How much oxygon does a brain need?
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20% in adults,50% in babies
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Why did neocortex evolve? (2)
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Need in warm-blooded to regulate temperature and homeostasis, Acquire and store additional information on environment
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Where is sensory cortex located?
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Rear of central sulcus
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What can be found at the rear of the central sulcus?
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Sensory cortex
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What does the sensory cortex do?
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Processing information from each of the main senses
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Is (and if so how much) space used for sensory processing?
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Yes, up to 50%
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Where is motor cortex?
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In front of central fissure
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What is in front of central fissure?
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Motor cortex
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What does motor cortex do?
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Sending information out to muscles
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What distinction between areas in brain should be drawn?
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Between primary and association areas
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What happens in primary sensory projection areas?
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Information appears to be analysed- input is broken down
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Where is information broken down and analysed?
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Primary sensory projection areas
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What happens within secondary cortical areas?
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Output from primary sensory projection areas collate information
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Output from primary sensory projection areas collates information where?
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Secondary cortical areas
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Output from primary sensory projection areas collate information to association areas, but also what?
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It is collated and integrated with other senses at the same time
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First comes sensation, than?
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Perception
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Perception follows what?
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Sensation
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How do we know that perception follows sensation?
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Experiment by Luria (1973)- Damage to primary visual projection area causes selective blindness, but damage to secondary and association areas causes perception to not take place
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Sensory and motor association areas are? (Give example)
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Connected(e.g) Reading book and reading out loud at same time
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With motor cortexes the process of receiving and responding is?
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Reversed, First associate cortex processes information received from associate sensory cortex and then primary motor cortex is activated to move.
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Somatosensory projection areas can be found in which part of the brain?
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Parietal lobe
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Cortical space dedicated to a part of the body in the somatosensory area is?
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Not proportional to body anatomy but to functional importance of sensitivity of that part of the body
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In case of a stroke which causes damage to the somato-motor area what will happen?
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Loss of control in body part which is corresponding to motor cortex part
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What does lateralisation of function mean?
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Two halfs of brain have different functions (to a degree)
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Sex differences in brain parts can be seen how?
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Men are more lateralized in hemisphere used
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When using sodium amytal on a hemisphere, what happens?
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Temporal incapacitating of this hemisphere
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What is sodium amytal good for?
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It can incapacitate a hemisphere for a while
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When looking at a letter L comprised of other letters D, if forced to focus on the L, which hemisphere will be activated and why?
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Right hemisphere because of visuo-spatial awareness
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When looking at a letter L comprised of other letters D, if forced to focus on the D, which hemisphere will be activated and why?
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The left hemisphere because of analysis
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Damage to the right hemispherical frontal lobe causes what?
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Indifference to disability
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Damage to the left hemispherical frontal lobe causes what?
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Aggresion or depression
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Can it be said that the right hemisphere is the only source for emotion?
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Yes- Damage to right temporal lobe causes inability to read emotions, No- Damage to either hemisphere of the frontal lobe causes equivalent deficit
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Which three things does Pinel assume to be in the prefrontal lobes?
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Working memory, Planning and executing sequences of action, Inhibiting responses which are inappropriate to a given situation
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Working memory, Planning and executing sequences of action, Inhibiting responses which are inappropriate to a given situation according to who, where?
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Prefrontal lobe- Pine
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Freeman argues what about the prefrontal lobe?
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Self-consciousness
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Prefrontal cortex could also be said to be what, according to Gazzaniga?
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Constitution of the Self
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The consitution of the self is where, according to who?
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Gazzaniga argues in prefrontal cortex
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Frontal lobes are what, in relation to development?
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Relatively late in development (1st and 2nd birthday in toddlers; late in myelination)
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ADHD could be, to some degree, based on what?
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Damage to right prefrontal lobe
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Prefrontal lobe damage or inactivity can be the explanation for what?
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ADHD, Violent criminals without ability to resist violent or irresponsible impulses
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In sum, prefrontal cortex does what? (7)
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"The Self", Social awareness and social inhibition, Working memory, Knowing when not to do a social act, Thinking, Conceptualizing and planning Conscious appreciation of emotion
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Concluding statements about Biopsychology (3)
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The brain parts are interlinked, not fully understood and high in plasticity, The future will focus on enhancing performance/improving quality of life, No one theoretical framework exists to understand the brain fully
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Genotypes are what?
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A collection of genes, generated by a random half of each parent.
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A collection of genes, generated by a random half of each parent is called what?
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Genotypes
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What are genes?
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A part of a cell that controls or influences the appearance or growth of a living thing.
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What do genes make up?
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Genotypes
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A Phenotype is what?
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An expression of a Genotype, it is the animal that is produced from the collection of genes
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What is an expression of a Genotype called ?
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Phenotype
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What are the mechanisms of Inheritance?
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Genes, Genotypes and Phenotypes
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When do genetic mutations occur?
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Conception
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What are the products of natural selection (3)
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Adaptations, Epiphenomenon and Random Effects
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Adaptions are what?
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Designs for survival or reproduction, refined and preserved through natural selection.
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What are adoptions for?
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These are specificity concerned with helping for survival on our environment.
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Epiphenomenon are what?
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Designs retained by natural selection because they leave no harm to the animal, they are a secondary development from an Adaption
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What are the steps of Adoption?
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Gene variance occurs, this expresses a phenotype.
If Reproduce by means of off spring it is inherited. If this cycle continues it is eventually adapted by all. |
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According to Biological psychologists what is believed about genes?
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Psychological adoptions are also inherited in the same manner as Biological.
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What 4 chemicals create DNA?
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A,T,C,G
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