Biology Plants

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seed

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consists of an embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat

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Heterospory

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the production of spores of two different sexes (male and female)

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Phylum Cycadophyta

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Individuals have large cones and palmlike leaves

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Phylum Ginkgophyta

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This phylum consists of a single living species, Ginkgo biloba

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Phylum Gnetophyta

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Species vary in appearance, and some are tropical whereas others live in deserts

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Phylum Coniferophyta

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This phylum is by far the largest of the gymnosperm phyla
Most conifers are evergreens and can carry out photosynthesis year round

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Anthophyta

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angiosperms

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Sepals

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which enclose the flower

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Petals

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which are brightly colored and attract pollinators

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Stamens

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which produce pollen on their terminal anthers

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Carpel

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produce ovules

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two main groups of angiosperms

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monocots (one cotyledon) and eudicots (“true” dicots)

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charophytes

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A group of green algae

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bryophytes

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Nonvascular plants

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vascular plants

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plants have vascular tissue

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seedless vascular plants clades

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Lycophytes
Pterophytes

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Lycophytes

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club mosses and their relatives

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Pterophytes

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ferns and their relatives

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seed plants

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Gymnosperms,
Angiosperms,

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Gymnosperms,

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the “naked seed” plants, including the conifers

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Angiosperms

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the flowering plants

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Bryophytes

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Liverworts, phylum Hepatophyta
Hornworts, phylum Anthocerophyta
Mosses, phylum Bryophyta

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Xylem

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conducts most of the water and minerals

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Phloem

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distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products

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lignin

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Water-conducting cells are strengthened by _____ and provide structural support

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mycelia

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, networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption

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chitin

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Most fungi have cell walls mad of _____

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pheromones

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Fungi use sexual signaling molecules

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Molds

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produce haploid spores by mitosis and form visible mycelia

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deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi
)

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Many molds and yeasts have no known sexual stage

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chytrids (phylum Chytridiomycota)

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are found in freshwater and terrestrial habitats
are unique among fungi in having flagellated spores, called zoospores

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zygomycetes (phylum Zygomycota)

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resistant to freezing and drying

named for their sexually produced zygosporangia
Black bread mold is an example

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glomeromycetes

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form arbuscular mycorrhizae

This helps plant capture nutrients
In return, the plant supplies sugars or other nutrients that the fungus needs

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Arbuscular mycorrhizae

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are mutually symbiotic with plants where the fungus pierces the cells of the host plant’s roots

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Ascomycetes (phylum Ascomycota)

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defined by production of sexual spores in saclike asci (a-sigh), usually contained in fruiting bodies called ascocarps

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This species naturally produces the antibiotic penicillin

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Ascomycete

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Basidomycetes (phylum Basidiomycota)

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include mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi, mutualists, and plant parasites

The phylum is defined by a clublike structure called a basidium, a diploid stage in the life cycle

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club fungi

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basidiomycetes

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lichen

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symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus

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mycosis

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The general term for a fungal infection in animals

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Photoautotrophs

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which contain chloroplasts

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Heterotrophs

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which absorb organic molecules or ingest larger food particles

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Mixotrophs

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which combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition

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Excavata cytoskeleton (filaments in the cytoplasm for structural support)

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Diplomonads
Parabasalids
Euglenozoans

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Chromalveolate

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Alveolates
Stramenopiles

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Alveolata

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includes the dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates

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Dinoflagellates

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have two flagella make them spin as they move through the water

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Apicomplexans

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re parasites of animals, and some cause serious human diseases
causes malaria

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Ciliates

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a large varied group of protists, are named for their use of cilia to move and feed

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Stramenopila

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Diatoms
Golden algae
Brown algae
Oomycetes

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Diatoms

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are unicellular algae with a unique two-part, glass-like wall of silica

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Golden algae

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are named for their color, which results from carotenoids

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Brown algae

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largest and most complex algae

They include many species commonly called “seaweeds”

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Oomycetes

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include water molds, white rusts, and downy mildews
Most are decomposers or parasites
They have filaments (hyphae) that facilitate nutrient uptakes

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Rhizarians

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Forams
Radiolarians

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forams

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are named for porous shells called tests

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radiolarians

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have tests fused into one delicate piece, usually made of silica
Use their pseudopodia to engulf microorganisms

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Archaeplastida

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includes red algae, green algae, and land plants

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Red algae

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are reddish in color due to a pigment that masks the green of chlorophyll
Red algae are usually multicellular; the largest are seaweeds

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Green algae

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are named for their green chloroplasts
One of the main groups of green algae are the chlorophytes

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Unikonta

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includes animals, fungi, and some protists

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Amoebozoans under unikonta

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Slime molds
Gymnamoebas
Entamoebas

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Gymnamoebas

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are unicellular and found in soil, freshwater, and marine environments

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Entamoebas

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are parasites of vertebrates and some invertebrates

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Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes

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spheres, rods, and spirals

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Bacterial cell walls contain

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peptidoglycan

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Archaea contain polysaccharides and proteins but ____ ____

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lack peptidoglycan

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Gram staining

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helps identify bacteria types

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Gram-positive

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Gram-positive bacteria have more peptidoglycan

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Gram-negative bacteria are more likely to be

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antibiotic resistant

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fimbriae

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which allow them to stick to their substrate

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Sex pili

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e longer than fimbriae and allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA

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endospores

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which can remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries

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Three factors contribute to the large genetic diversity in prokaryotes:

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Rapid reproduction (every 1-3 hours)
Mutation
Genetic recombination

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transformation

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A prokaryotic cell can take up foreign DNA from the environment in a process called

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Transduction

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is the movement of genes between bacteria by bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria)

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Conjugation

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is the process where genetic material is transferred between bacterial cells

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Phototrophs

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obtain energy from light

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Chemotrophs

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obtain energy from chemicals

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Autotrophs

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require CO2 as a carbon source

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Heterotroph

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require an organic nutrient to make organic compounds

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Extreme halophiles

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live in highly saline environments

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extreme thermophiles

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thrive in very hot environments

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Methanogens

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live in swamps and marshes and produce methane as a waste product

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Chlamydias

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These bacteria are parasites that live within animal cells
Chlamydia trachomatis is spread by sexual transmission

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Spirochetes

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se bacteria are helical heterotrophs
Some, such as Treponema pallidum, which causes syphilis, and Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease, are parasites

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Cyanobacteria

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These are photoautotrophs that generate O2
Some species produce anatoxins that act similar to nicotinic neurotoxins

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Phylogeny

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is the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

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Convergent evolution

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occurs when natural selection produces similar adaptations in organisms from different lineages

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Homology

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is similarity due to shared ancestry

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Analogy

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s similarity due to convergent evolution

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shared ancestral character

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is a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon

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shared derived character

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is an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade