Biology Lab Final

Front 1

Disposal of Lab Waste

Back 1

Slides: go into slide disposal pail
Glass waste box: all chipped or broken glassware goes here
Pipettes: go into disposal box, NOT garbage

Front 2

Science is a systematic process dealing with questions that can be answered.....

Back 2

empirically, through the use of observations, experience, or experiments

Front 3

Scientific Method

Back 3

Observation → Hypothesis → Prediction → Experiment → Conclusions (and back to hypothesis if conclusions cannot be met)

Front 4

Hypothesis

Back 4

A question formulated based on previously obtained facts or observations

Front 5

A good hypothesis must be...

Back 5

Falsifiable, it can be tested in a way that can lead to evidence that does not support the hypothesis

Front 6

Prediction

Back 6

"if..then" statement, how experiments are designed

Front 7

Factors being investigated must be...

Back 7

Measurable

Front 8

Control

Back 8

the unaffected group in an experiment, which is used to measure outcomes of experiments

Front 9

Dependent Variable

Back 9

the variable being tested or measured

Front 10

Independent Variable

Back 10

the variable being changed or controlled by the investigator

Front 11

Conclusions

Back 11

can be drawn after a hypothesis has been tested and proven or disproven

Front 12

Theory

Back 12

not just a possible explanation, but a conclusion based on substantial evidence that the scientific community has accepted to be true

Front 13

Beakers

Back 13

are used to hold or heat large volumes of liquids, they do not measure volume accurately

Front 14

Graduated Cylinders

Back 14

used to measure large volumes of liquid, and are more accurate than beakers for volumetric measurements

Front 15

Pipettes

Back 15

used to measure small volumes of liquid (0-10mL)

Front 16

Types of Pipettes

Back 16

Volumetric: designed to dispense a single volume only, with very high accuracy

Serological: graduation marks that continue to the tip

Mohr: graduation marks that stop before the tip

Front 17

Proper Pipette Use

Back 17

never let the fluid enter the pump or the bulb
hold it upright, do not tilt

Front 18

Meniscus

Back 18

portion of a fluid's surface that has a concave appearance, caused by surface tension

*Look at the bottom of the meniscus for accurate measuring*

Front 19

Calculating Percent Error

Back 19

% Error = (Measured Volume - Theoretical Volume)/
(Theoretical Volume) x 100

Front 20

Spectrophotometry

Back 20

used to measure the amount of light that is absorbed by (on a scale 0-2) or transmitted through (0-100%) a sample, at particular wavelengths of light

The absorbance of a solution is directly proportional to the concentration of the molecules in the solution

visible light vs UV

Front 21

Using the Spectrophotometer

Back 21

Blank using water, then test sample, then record data and blank with water again, repeating this process

Front 22

Absorption Spectrum

Back 22

pattern of light absorption over a range of wavelengths

can help determine the peak absorbance, aka maximum wavelength

Experiment 1: peak absorbance of bromophenol blue is 580-600 nm

Front 23

Standard Curve

Back 23

of known concentrations of samples against their absorbances

Front 24

How to Calculate Unknown (Experiment 1)

Back 24

To figure out unknown, go to absorption value and trace it to the line (standard curve) and drop down, until you hit the concentration on x axis, allowing you to figure out the unknown based on that x value

Front 25

Components of a Microscope

Back 25

for practical

Front 26

Knobs on Microscope and Proper Usage

Back 26

Coarse Adjustment: larger knob, use at low magnification, (4x - 10x)

Fine Adjustment: smaller knob, use at higher magnifications (40x - 100x)

Using coarse adjust on higher magnifications will result in broken slides

Front 27

Handling the microscope

Back 27

hold with two hands, one on base and one on arm, place it so the arm is facing away from you

Front 28

Ocular Lenses

Back 28

eyepiece, has 10x magnification

Front 29

Objective Lenses

Back 29

provide most of the magnification, work with the ocular (4x-100x)

Front 30

Revolving Nosepiece

Back 30

rotates to desired objective lens

Front 31

Stage

Back 31

flat platform, where slides are places

Front 32

Condenser

Back 32

light source under stage, not involved in magnification, but helps concentrate light from illuminator (light source)

Front 33

Total Magnification

Back 33

ocular lens (10x) times objective (4x-100x) = ___x

Front 34

Immersion Oil

Back 34

used for 100x, it helps refract/bend the light so that you can see the image at this high magnification
has refractive index similar to glass which allows greater resolution at higher magnifications

Front 35

Calculating Unknown Field of View

Back 35

Ex:
(4x/10x)(4mm) = 1.6mm at 10x, convert to micro

Front 36

Letters under microscope

Back 36

flipped from a d to a p

as you move the slide to left, but as seen through the oculars it moves to the right, etc.

Front 37

Standard units

Back 37

mass: g
length: m
volume: L

Front 38

Magnification

Back 38

the number times larger an image appears than its real size

Front 39

Resolution

Back 39

the effectiveness by which two points can be perceived as distinct

Front 40

Contrast

Back 40

difference between light and dark areas
higher contrast = more difference

Front 41

Refraction

Back 41

bending of light as it passes from one medium to another

Front 42

Index of refraction

Back 42

physical property defined by the speed of light in a vacuum divided by the speed of light in the medium

Front 43

Relationship between Depth of Field and Magnification

Back 43

As magnification increases, depth of field decreases

In order to view the specimen at higher magnifications, either the specimen must become thinner or the field of view must be carefully adjusted up and down to get an accurate idea of its structure

Front 44

Practice Unit Conversion and Dimensional Analysis

Back 44

kilo: 10^3
centi: 10^-2
milli: 10^-3
micro: 10^-6
nano: 10^-9
pico: 10^-12

Front 45

Dissecting Microscope

Back 45

used to observe small organisms, provides a 3D view at relatively lower magnifications

Front 46

Compound Microscope

Back 46

used at greater magnifications, used to view thinly sliced things

used in lab

Front 47

Electron Microscope

Back 47

use electromagnets rather than lenses for magnification

Disadvantage: have to kill specimen to use it, where as light microscopy can look at living cells

Front 48

Scanning Electron Microscope

Back 48

used to look at surface of cells, like a dissecting microscope

Front 49

Transmission Electron Microscope

Back 49

a high resolution, 2D views of thinly sliced things, like the compound microscope

Front 50

Rotifers

Back 50

Left: shelled
Right: non-shelled

Front 51

Cell

Back 51

smallest unit of life, can perform basic life functions

Function:
1. obtain energy
2. reproduce/replicate

Front 52

Prokaryotic Cells

Back 52

not enclosed by a membrane
no nucleus, has a nucleoid where DNA is stored
no membrane bound organelles
smaller than eukaryotic cells (1-10 micrometers)
divide by binary fission
mostly single-celled

Front 53

Eukaryotic Cells

Back 53

is enclosed by a nucleus with DNA in nucleus (more complex DNA material)
membrane bound organelles
larger than eukaryotic cells (10-100 micrometers)
divide by mitosis
single celled and multicellular

Front 54

Cytosol

Back 54

DNA of prokaryotes is suspended in the cell's aqueous interior
where a cell's metabolic processes occur

Front 55

Protists

Back 55

microscopic inhabitants of pond water

Front 56

Cell Wall/Membrane Composition of Various Cells

Back 56

Bacteria: peptidoglycan
Plants: cellulose
Fungi: chitin

Front 57

Organelles

Back 57

only eukaryotes possess these, additional membrane-bound compartments

Front 58

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

Back 58

puts a limit on cell size

As size increases, the ratio decreases, leading to harder transport of nutrients

How to improve it: multiple nuclei, or larger nuclei

Front 59

Organisms that have contractile vacuoles

Back 59

amoeba, paramecium, and certain fungi

Front 60

Endosymbiont Theory

Back 60

explains how eukaryotic cells could have obtained double membranes (mitochondria and chloroplasts)

a larger cell engulfed a smaller cell, creating a double membrane

evolved from a endosymbiotic relationship between two prokaryotes

Front 61

Cytoplasmic Streaming

Back 61

circular flow of cytoplasm in cell (can be seen in elodea)

Front 62

Central Vacuole

Back 62

can reduce volume within cells

Front 63

Lactobacillus

Back 63

- prokaryote (bacterium)
- produces yogurt

Front 64

Cyanobacteria

Back 64

- photosynthetic prokaryote
- basis of endosymbiont process

Front 65

Elodea

Back 65

- aquatic plant
- can see cytoplasmic steaming
- chloroplasts in cytoplasm
- cell wall made of cellulose
- have large central vacuoles to maintain SA-volume ratio

Front 66

Relating Cyanobacteria and Elodea

Back 66

- both are photosynthetic plants
but as seen with cyanobacteria, photosynthesis does not always require chloroplasts

Front 67

Onion

Back 67

- chloroplasts are absent because they are underground
- you can see cell wall, and nucleus

Front 68

Potato

Back 68

- stored food energy as starch
- starch stored in organelles called amloplasts

Front 69

Amoebae

Back 69

- protists
- no cell wall
- cytoplasmic streaming, for food and movement
- will move away from light
- pseudopodia

Front 70

Paramecium

Back 70

- protists
- use cilia for movement
- cytoplasmic streaming for nutrient uptake

Front 71

Hypermastigotes

Back 71

- protist
- found in guts of termites (symbiotic relationship)
- digest wood
- spirochetes are the method for movement

Front 72

Calculating Length of Cells

Back 72

length of cell = (diameter of fov)/(estimated # of cells in diameter)

Front 73

Diffusion

Back 73

a random movement toward a state of equilibrium, a substance moves from high to low concentration

any substance can diffuse down the concentration gradient, eventually reaching a dynamic equilibrium

Front 74

Osmosis

Back 74

diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane that it may cross but a solute cannot

moves from low solute concentration to higher solute concentration

down its concentration gradient

Front 75

Hypertonic

Back 75

high solute concentration, water flows out of them

shrink, too little water

Front 76

Hypotonic

Back 76

low solute concentration, water will flow into them

burst, too much water

Front 77

Isotonic

Back 77

same solute concentration, no net movement

Front 78

Passive modes of transport

Back 78

diffusion and osmosis, no energy required, move down concentration gradients

Front 79

Diffusion and Osmosis are important for...

Back 79

proper water balance in a cell

Front 80

An animal cell in pure water

Back 80

could burst, hypotonic environment

Front 81

Dealing with certain 'tonic' environments

Back 81

OSMOSIS

animal cells: too much water, bursts
plants: cell wall stops water intake
protists: have contractile vacuoles to expel excess water

Front 82

Hot and Cold Diffusion Experiment

Back 82

the dye diffused quicker in the hot water because of the quicker particle movement associated with warmer temperatures

Front 83

Dialysis Diffusion Experiment

Back 83

the sucrose inside the distilled water diffused out of the bag to go from high to lower concentration

if it was distilled water in a bag in sucrose, the water would leave the tube and try to enter the beaker of the sucrose solution

Front 84

pH

Back 84

measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (protons) in a solution

acidic- more H
basic- less H

Front 85

Importance of pH

Back 85

cells need to maintain a certain pH in order to survive

Front 86

Why can most cells only live in a certain pH range?

Back 86

Cells are typically charged and a different pH range than what a cell is inclined to can change the distribution of charges to the cells (because pH involves the presence or absences of certain amounts of H ions). This would ultimately alter or destroy the cell and its functions.

Front 87

Which organisms can survive better in changing pH conditions?

Back 87

A free-living cell would survive better than a symbiotic cell because free-living cells often have to adapt to changing environmental conditions whereas symbiotic cells live in closed off environments that do not encounter many environmental changes. An example of a free-living cell would be paramecium. An example of a symbiotic cell is a hypermastigote.

Front 88

DNA

Back 88

- deoxyribose nucleic acid
- exists as a double stranded, coiled molecule
- part of a chromosome
- heritable
- information storage to make all of a cell's protein molecules
- each strand is a polymer composed of nucleotides with adjacent nucleotides joined together by covalent bonds
- negatively charged, making it hydrophilic and soluble in water

Front 89

DNA backbone

Back 89

5 C sugar and phosphate backbone with a nitrogenous base connected to the first carbon on the sugar

Front 90

Phosphodiester bonds

Back 90

the deoxyribose of one nucleotide connected to the negatively charged phosphate group

Front 91

Hydrogen bonds

Back 91

the two stands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen congaing nucleotides, which lie side by side in the double helix

Front 92

Purine

Back 92

- 2 rings
- adenine and guanine

Front 93

Pyrimidine

Back 93

- 1 ring
- cytosine and thymine

Front 94

The base pair bonding

Back 94

A to T - 2 H bonds
C to G - 3 H bonds

(3 rings in total, giving uniform diameter)

Front 95

DNA reproduction

Back 95

complementary base-pairing

Front 96

Polynucleotide

Back 96

many nucleotides paired together (made of a nitrogenous base, sugar, and phosphate)

Front 97

How to write a DNA sequence

Back 97

5' 3'
3' 5'

match up the complementary base pairs

Front 98

DNA code

Back 98

is redundant, or degenerate
has 64 different code words (4^3)

Front 99

Isopropanol

Back 99

since it is hydrophobic and non polar, while DNA is hydrophilic and polar, the isopropanol will precipitate the DNA

Front 100

Salt

Back 100

used to neutralize the DNA, since salt is positively charged, while DNA is negatively charged, this prevents the individual DNA strands from repelling each other

Front 101

Baking Soda

Back 101

maintains pH (a buffer) for the DNA

Front 102

Shampoo

Back 102

breaks open the cells and dissolves the membrane

Front 103

UV Spectrophotometer

Back 103

measures absorbance of UV light, can be used to determine amount of DNA in a solution (DNA bases absorb UV light)

OD = nm

Front 104

Peak Absorbances for DNA, RNA, and Protein

Back 104

DNA and RNA: OD260
Protein: OD280

Front 105

How to estimate amount of DNA

Back 105

by multiplying the OD260 by 50 to get micrograms of DNA

is actually an overestimate, because it is a mixture of DNA, RNA, and protein

Front 106

How to estimate purity

Back 106

OD260 / OD280

Front 107

Why keep DNA cold?

Back 107

keeping it cold prevents enzymes from coming into the cells and "chopping" it up

Front 108

Layers in cuvette during strawberry DNA experiment

Back 108

DNA is in the aqueous layer (extract at bottom of isopropanol and top of aqueous layer with loop)

Alcohol is in the isopropanol layer

Front 109

Overexposure to UV light

Back 109

can cause DNA to change its coding, your skin cells cannot absorb light past the peak absorbance, and anything more is overexposure and harmful

Front 110

Gene

Back 110

hereditary units, consists of a sequence of DNA, codes for a particular trait

one set of genes is inherited from each parent

Front 111

Locus

Back 111

a specific location that DNA occupies on the chromosome

Front 112

Alleles

Back 112

different versions of genes, result from different base pairing sequences in DNA, alternative expressions of traits; dominant or recessive

individuals with different alleles will have a different number and arrangement of recognition sites for restriction enzymes

Front 113

Are there the same two sequences of DNA between individuals?

Back 113

No, no individual can have the same set of DNA as another person, everyone has different variations of their nucleotides.

Front 114

Changes in DNA structure

Back 114

can be caused by mutations, during errors of DNA replication, or environmental agents like UV light

Front 115

How to visualize differences in DNA sequences

Back 115

by the use of restriction enzymes

Front 116

Restriction Enzymes

Back 116

- are produced by certain bacteria
- they cut at particular recognition sites as defense mechanism, cutting up invading viral DNA
- used in DNA fingerprinting

Front 117

Product of Restriction Enzymes

Back 117

sticky and cohesive ends

Front 118

Micropipette

Back 118

- measures micro liters
- used for DNA, RNA, and protein
- for the pipetteman, look at the hashmarks under the numbers to be sure of exact amount (you can tell by if they aren't centered)

Front 119

DNA Fingerprinting

Back 119

analysis of DNA fragments of different sizes through electrophoresis
- provides an accurate, unambiguous identification of the source of the DNA samples
- can be used to compare samples of DNA and their cut sites from restriction enzymes

Front 120

Agarose solution

Back 120

- TBE powder mixed with a certain amount of agarose
- heated up in microwave, when it looks clear it is done
- is the gel that makes the mold inside the box, the comb is placed in it to make wells

can figure what % of solution you need by m1v1=m2v2 or (weight)/(volume)

Front 121

Electrophoresis

Back 121

a technique used to separate molecules based on charge and size
an electrical current is applied to a gel matrix (agarose)
used to separate DNA, RNA, and protein

Front 122

Components of Gel Electrophoresis Machine

Back 122

power supply: emits electrical current
buffer: carries electrical current
comb: creates wells in gel
gel: agarose

Front 123

Agarose and Pore Size

Back 123

high agarose concentration, small pores
low agarose concentration, larger pores

Front 124

Separation by charge

Back 124

since DNA has a negative charge (on the phosphate group), it will migrate to the positive pole in the apparatus

Front 125

Separation by size

Back 125

smaller molecules travel faster than larger ones because they can slip through the pores better

Front 126

How to calculate % agarose

Back 126

g agarose / ml buffer

Front 127

Ethidium Bromide

Back 127

used to stain the gel to be viewed in the UV light box

Front 128

Test Tubes and their purpose

Back 128

small: for spec
medium: centrifuge
large: freezing and boiling enzyme

Front 129

Why should the potato be put on ice?

Back 129

to prevent from enzyme degradation and early reactions

Front 130

Reaction rate vs concentration

Back 130

directly proportional, higher concentration, faster reaction rate

Front 131

Reaction rate

Back 131

is not constant, its slope steepest at first and declines over time

Front 132

Initial rate

Back 132

found by drawing a line on the graph, not a trend line

increases on increasing concentration

Front 133

How to calculate initial rate

Back 133

(y2 - y1)/(x2 - x1)

Front 134

Room Temp vs 0 degree Reaction

Back 134

room temp reacts better

Front 135

Boiling vs Freezing Reaction

Back 135

freezing reacted better than boiling

possibly because of denaturing

Front 136

Shaking the tube in enzyme catalysis

Back 136

will speed up the reaction

Front 137

Adding more oxygen in enzyme catalysis

Back 137

reactions will occur more rapidly

Front 138

Polyphenoloxidase

Back 138

found in potatoes

Front 139

Role of enzymes

Back 139

can speed up reactions in the body

Front 140

Heat catalyst vs Enzyme catalyst

Back 140

heat catalysts have a limit, too much heat will denature the proteins

Front 141

ATP

Back 141

without ATP, a cell will die, and cellular respiration must be occurring constantly

Front 142

Glycolysis

Back 142

first phase for cellular respiration and fermentation

is anaerobic, doesn't require or use oxygen

occurs in cytosol

Front 143

Fermentation

Back 143

doesn't require oxygen, utilized by yeast, bacteria cells and muscle cells

produces CO2, lactic acid or alcohol

Front 144

Cellular Respiration

Back 144

requires oxygen for the last process, The ETC. Produces co2 and ATP

Front 145

Yeast Lab Reagents

Back 145

the three carbohydrate solutions mixed with 0.5g yeast

they were put in fridge or in a oven or in room temp

Front 146

The Carbohydrate Difference

Back 146

glucose is the best because it is a monosaccharide and therefore is composed of less and has less bonds to break as it is being metabolized

sucrose was a disaccharide and starch a poly

Front 147

Temperature and Fermentation

Back 147

37 degrees was optimal conditions and 0 degrees contributed to zero CO2 production

Front 148

DPIP

Back 148

used to asses the oxidation of succinate

will turn from colorless to blue when it accepts the electrons from succinate, making fumarate

its role is to serve as the electron acceptor of H ions during the redox reaction, going from oxidized to reduced state

a reducing agent (takes something from oxidized into reduced)

Front 149

FAD

Back 149

depletes hydrogen ions succinate to make fumarate, like DPIP

Front 150

Reagents in Respiration

Back 150

buffer: preserved the pH

DPIP: to show the oxidation and serve as the electron acceptor

Mitochondrial Suspension: where the respiration takes place, necessary for process to be observed

Succinate: required for the oxidation into fumarate to occur, helped by DPIP

Front 151

Importance of Succinate and Fumarate

Back 151

without succinate being oxidized into fumarate, the entirety of cellular respiration wouldn't occur, it is needed to continue on with the cycle

Front 152

Initial Reaction Rate Calculation

Back 152

(% final - % initial)/ (time final - time initial)

Front 153

Redox Reaction

Back 153

oxidation: loss/transfer of electrons
reduced: gain of electrons

Front 154

Pigment

Back 154

molecules responsible for capturing solar energy, located in the chloroplasts

Front 155

Paper chromatography

Back 155

the separation of plant pigments based on their polarity

Front 156

Polar

Back 156

dissolve and are attracted to other polar molecules

Front 157

Nonpolar

Back 157

attracted to other non polar molecules in varying degrees

Front 158

Absorption Spectrum

Back 158

can be used with paper chromatography, shows the absorption pattern for a pigment at a particular wavelength

determined with a spectrophotometer

Front 159

Transmission vs Absorption

Back 159

a certain color will reflect/transmit the color it appears to be, meaning it will not absorb at this set of wavelengths

it will absorb all the colors it is not

Front 160

Front

Back 160

the leading edge of the solvent

discrete pigment bands will be formed from the front, back to the point where pigments were added to the paper

Front 161

Paper Chromatography Methods

Back 161

in lab, used fresh spinach ground up on the paper

Acetone and ether (organic solvents) were poured into the beaker

Front 162

Importance of different pigments

Back 162

Many photosynthetic organisms have a mixture of pigments. In this way organisms can absorb energy from a wider range of wavelengths and obtain more energy

Front 163

Acetone

Back 163

has polar and non polar characteristics, therefore during the paper chromatography the least polar substances will travel the furthest up the paper and the polar ones will stay to the bottom

Front 164

Polarity of molecules

Back 164

Most polar: chlorophyll b, travels least

least polar: beta carotene, travels most

Front 165

Order of Polarity (most to least)

Back 165

1. chlorophyll b
2. chlorophyll a
3. xanthophyll
4. beta carotene

Front 166

Peak Absorbance for each pigment

Back 166

Chlorophyll a: 460, 620

Chlorophyll b: 400-460, 640

Beta carotene: 440-480

Xanthophyll: 420-480

Total pigment: 400-440, 620-680

Front 167

Plants do absorption...

Back 167

through pigments, the colors attract certain wavelengths of light, giving it energy

Front 168

visible light spectrum

Back 168

Front 169

Daughter cells

Back 169

each contain one copy of the chromosome, done by eukaryotes in binary fission

Front 170

Interphase

Back 170

where most of a cell's life is spent, where it helps it grow in size and duplicate its DNA

Front 171

Somatic cells

Back 171

all body cells except reproductive, uses mitosis

Front 172

Germ cells

Back 172

reproductive cells, uses meiosis

Front 173

Mitosis

Back 173

has five phases, results in full set of chromosomes

1. prophase
2. prometaphase
3. metaphase
4. anaphase
5. telophase

end result: two daughter cells from one original cell, each daughter cell contains same number of chromosomes from the original cell

Front 174

Meiosis

Back 174

is like a cycle of mitosis twice, meiosis 1 and 2

results in halving the number of chromosomes from original cell, reproductive cells, four daughter cells

Front 175

Crossing over

Back 175

happens during prophase of meiosis 1

results in chromosomes with a different mix of alleles from the parent chromosomes, causes large genetic variation

Front 176

Anaphase vs Interphase

Back 176

anaphase is usually the shortest with interphase being the longest

Front 177

Diploid

Back 177

full number of chromosomes

2n

mitosis

Front 178

Haploid

Back 178

half the number of chromosomes

n

meiosis

Front 179

Sordaria fimicola

Back 179

the fungus to show crossing over

Front 180

% recombinant

Back 180

% recombinant = (recombinant/ recom + nonrecom) x 100

Front 181

Map Units

Back 181

the unit of measurement used to describe the distance from the centromere to the gene of interest, equal to 1% frequency of recombination


Calculated by: % recombinant x 0.5 = map units

Front 182

Euglena

Back 182

Front 183

Onion root and the phases

Back 183

Front 184

Fungi crossing over

Back 184

Front 185

Elodea leaf

Back 185

Front 186

Rotifer

Back 186

Front 187

Lactobacillus

Back 187

Front 188

Paramecium

Back 188