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116 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
How many different types of lipids?
6: 1) Fatty Acid
2) Triacylglycerols
3) Phospholipids
4) Glycolipids
5) Steriods
6) Terpenes
Fatty Acid:

Structure
Function
Types
Carboxylic head group with a tail of C's

When oxidized releases lots of energy

Saturated and Unsaturated
Triacylglycerols:

Structure
Function
Types
glycerol with 3 fatty acid chains

Stores energy, thermal insulation, and padding

triglycerides, fats, or oil
Phospholipids:

Structure
Function
Types
Glycerol backbone but instead of 3 fatty acid chains has a phosphate group making it polar

structural component of membranes
Glycolipids:

Structure
Function
Types
Same as phospholipid instead of a phosphate group it has a carbohydrate group.

found in myelinated cells
Steroids:

Structure
Function
Type
four ring structure

regulates metabolic activities

hormones, Vitamin D, cholesterol
Eicosanoids:

Structure
Function
Types
20 Carbon Fatty Acid

Released from cell membrane as hormones: regulate blood pressure, body temperature, and smooth muscle contraction

Prostaglandin, thromboxane, leukotriene
Lipoproteins
Transfers lipids by a lipid core surrounded with phospholipids and apoproteins

VDL, LDL, HDL
Nonpolar amino acids
glycine, valine, alanine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan, and proline
Polar amino acids
serine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, asparagine, glutamine
Acidic amino acids
Aspartic, Glutamic
Basic amino acids
Lysine, Arginine, Histidine
When you see N think?
Protein
Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Quaternary
sequence of amino acids

α helix, β sheet

Twisted polypeptide

multiple polypeptide
Five forces that help form tertiary structure
1) disulfide bonds
2) ionic interactions
3) H-bonds
4) van der waals
5) hydrophobic side chains
Glucose two types of structure
β and α
Glycogen structure
α (1-4) and α (1-6)
Starch
α (1-4)
Cellulose
β (1-4)
Nucleotides 3 components
1) 5 carbon sugar
2) nitrogenous base
3) phosphate group
Two types of enzyme specificity
Lock and Key

Induced Fit
Saturation Kinetics
Concentration of substrate increases the rate of reaction increases until it hits Vmax
Things that effect enzymes
Temperature

PH
Three types of enzyme inhibition
Competitive- compete with substrate

Noncompetitive- binds to enzyme and changes it's conformation

Irreversible- binds to active site
Four types of enzyme regulation
Proteolytic Cleavage- enzymes start as a zymogen or proenzyme and when cleaved becomes activated

Reversible covalent modification- activated or deactivated by phosphorylation

Control proteins- G proteins

Allosteric Interactions- noncompetitive inhibitor
Negative and Positive Feedback
negative- turns off
positive -turns on
Where does most glycolysis occur in humans?
Liver
Net ATP produced from Glycolysis
2 used and 4 produced= Net total of 2

If including the NADH then that is 4 ATP which brings the total to 6
Aerobic Respiration occurs where?
In the mitochondria
How is pyruvate and NADH moved from the cytosol into the mitochondria?
Through facilitated diffusion through the porins located in the outer membrane of the mitochondria
One turn of the kreb cycle produces?
1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂
Anabolism?

Catabolism?
synthesis

degradation
Oxidative Phosphorylation

Substrate level phosphorylation
involves the electron transport chain and ATP synthase, and generates ATP from NADH and FADH₂ (kreb cycle)

Generates ATP from high energy phosphorylated compounds (glycolysis)
Products and Reactants for respiration
Glucose + O₂ => CO₂ + H₂O

combustion
Electron Transport Chain
as electrons are passed along the carriers they are reduced and then oxidized
Fermentation
Turns NADH back into NAD+
Net ATP produced by Kreb cycle?
Net total= 30 ATP
Central Dogma
DNA-RNA-Protein
Purines

Pyrimidines
Adenine, Guanine

Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil
Replication (5 steps)
1) Helicase unzips the DNA helix
2) Primase creates an RNA primer
3) DNA polymerase adds deoxynucleotides to the primer
4) Primers are removed
5) okazaki fragments are joined
RNA
1) made from ribose
2) single stranded
3) can exit nucleus through nuclear pore
4) mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
Transcription
Initiation: initiation factors find promoter on DNA starnd and assembles initiation complex

Elongation: RNa unzips DNA creates a transcription bubble

Termination
Post transcriptional processing
Primary transcript adds 5' cap and 3' poly A tail. Introns are cut out and remain in nucleus
Location of DNA
nucleus or mitochondria matrix
Stop codons

Start codons
UAA, UGA, UAG

AUG
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
template
anticodon also carries amino acid
makes up ribosome
Translation (3 steps)
Initiation- meth attaches to P site
Elongation- another tRNA comes into A site and translocation shifts the tRNA into E site
Termination- Stop codon is reached
Proteins injected into ER lumen
are destined to be membrane proteins. signal peptide directs ribosome to attach to ER
Mutations (nucleotide replacement)
Base Pair Mutations -> nonstop codon -> missense or Base Pair Mutations -> stop codon -> nonsense
Mutations (nucleotide addition or removal)
Insertions and Deletions -> non multiples of 3 -> Frameshift or Insertions and Deletions -> multiples of 3 -> nonframeshift
Histones
Nucleosome
Solenoids

What do all 3 combined make?
DNA wrapped around globular proteins
8 histones
nucleosomes wrapped into coils

chromatin
How many chromosomes in human somatic cells?
46
Homologues
two chromosomes that code for same traits, but gene may be different
Cell Life Cycle
G₁- cells just split and is now growing. Lots of RNA and protein synthesis. cell can enter G₀ or S phase

G₀- non-growing cycle

S- replicates DNA, each chromosome now has 2 identical sister chromatids

G₂- cell prepares to divide, detects MPF levels, when it's high enough cell enter M phase
Mitosis (PMAT)
Prophase- chromatin condenses, centrioles move to opposite end of cell, nucleolus/nucleus disappear, spindle apparatus appears

Metaphase- chromosomes align along equator of cell

Anaphase- sister chromatids split and move to opposite ends of cell

Telophase- nucleus/nucleolus reform, chromosomes decondense, cytokinesis
Meiosis (females)
replication takes place before birth and are in primary oocyte stage until puberty
Meiosis
Prophase I - crossing over/ genetic recombination occurs

Metaphase I- tetrads align in meiosis

Anaphase I- separates tetrads

Telophase I- new cells for secondary spermatocyte or oocyte

Mitosis
Virus structure
Capsid, and DNA or RNA, tail
Viruses are considered not living because?
1) require host cells reproductive machinery

2) Does not metabolize organic nutrients

3) Contains either DNA or RNA
Lytic Infection
Virus attaches to cell wall -> virus injects nucleic acid into cell -> replications of active virus -> assembly of new viruses -> lysis of cell-> virions -> repeats
Lysogenic Infection
viral DNA integrates into chromosomes and is only activated when cell is under stress
Plus strand RNA

Retroviruses

Minus strand RNA
cold, proteins can be translated by RNA

RNA -> DNA

must be transcribed to plus RNA
Prokaryotes

groups
structure
bacteria and archae

no nucleus, single circular double strand of DNA, cocci (round) or bacilli (rod)
Autotrophs

Heterotrophs

Phototrophs

Chemotrophs

Lithotroph

Organtroph
uses CO2 as primary carbon source

uses C from organisms living or dead

Light
Oxidation of organic/inorganic matter

acquires e- and H+ from inorganic

acquires e- and H+ from organic
Fluid mosaic Model
membrane can move laterally, steroids reduce the fluidity
Passive Diffusion

Facilitated Diffusion

Active Transport
brownian motion causes diffusion which is cause by a gradient (chemical or electrical)

Diffusion but through protein channels

Uses energy to go against the gradient
Hypertonic

Hypotonic

Isotonic
more inside cell than environment

more outside cell than in

equal
Gram (+) Bacteria

Gram (-) Bacteria
Thick peptidoglycan cell wall (purple)

Thin cell wall (pink)
Bacterial Flagella is made from?
Flagellin
Types of Bacterial Reproduction (4)
1) Conjugation- sex pilus
2)Transformation- incorporating DNA from outside
3)Transduction- virus DNA
4)Binary Fission

1-3 genetic recombination
Three Divisions for Fungi
Zygomycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
Saprophytic?
Dead or Alive
Fungus Cell walls
Septa, made from polysaccharide chitin
Reproduction for fungus
Most of life is haploid, use only budding, can reproduce sexually or asexually, mitosis only occurs in nucleus.
Endocytosis (3)
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis- extracellular fluid
Exocytosis
Rough ER
creates proteins that are sent toward Golgi
Smooth ER
produces triglycerides, helps detoxify, steroid synthesis
Peroxisomes
vesicles in cytosol, inactivates toxic substances
Microtubules
made from tubulin, two types α and β
Eukaryotic Flagella

Bacteria Flagella
9 + 2

Flagellin
Microfilaments
Made of Actin
Cell Junctions (3)
Tight Junction- Fluid barrier

Desmosomes- Join 2 cells at a single point

Gap Junctions- Tunnels connecting cells
Intercellular communication (3)
1) neurotransmitters
2) local mediators
3) hormones
Neuronal Communication

Hormonal Communication
Quick and responsive, short distance

Slow, but spreads through body
Neurons (3)
Unipolar (sensory)
Bipolar
Multipolar (most common)
Peptide Hormones- Water Soluble
Anterior Pituitary- FSH, LH, hGH, TSH, ACTH, Prolactin

Posterior Pituitary- ADH, Oxytocin

Parathyroid Hormone

Pancreatic Hormones- Insulin, Glucagon
Steroid Hormones- Lipid Soluble
Adrenal Cortex- Aldostereone, Cortisol

Gonads- Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone
Thyroid Hormones- Lipid Soluble
T3, T4

Adrenal Medulla- Epinephrine, Norepinephrin
hGH
stimulates growth in all cells
ACTH
stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids
TSH
stimulates thyroid to release t3, t4
Prolactin
Promotes Lactation
Oxytocin
increases uterine contractions, causes milk to be ejected
ADH
reduces urine
Aldosterone
Increases Na+ and Cl- reabsorption, increases blood pressure
Cortisol
Increases blood glucose levels
T3 and T4
Increases BMR
Calcitonin
Decreases Calcium
Insulin
Lower blood glucose levels
Glucagon
Raises blood glucose levels
PTH
Increases blood calcium
Resting Potential
cell has reached equilibrium with Na and K ions and the inner membrane has a negative potential when compared to the outer.
Process of Action Potential
1) membranes at Na and K channels are closed
2) Na opens and begins depolarizing
3) K opens and Na starts to close
4) K repolarizes
5) K closes, causes hyperpolarization
Absolute refractory Period

Relative Refractory Period
No stimulus will create an action potential

Only abnormally large stimulus will start the action potential
Synapse
Electrical

Chemical (unidirectional)
Neurotransmitter (in synaptic cleft)
1) destroyed
2) absorbed by presynaptic cleft
3) diffuses out
Neurons (3)
Sensory

Interneurons

Motor
CNS

PNS
brain and spinal cord

everything else
PNS- Somatic

Autonomic
responds to external environment (voluntary)

nonvoluntary
Autonomic- Sympathetic

Parasympathetic
flight or fight (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

rest and digest (acetylcholine
CNS- Lower Brain

Higher Brain
Medulla, hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum

cerebrum or cerebral cortex
Pathway of Eye
Cornea
Anterior Cavity
Pupil
Iris
Lens (connected to ciliary muscle)
Retina (rods and cones)
Pathway of Ear
Tympanic Membrane
Malleus, Incus, Stapes
Oval Window
Cochlea
Hair cells
Menstrual Cycle
1) follicular phase
2) Luteal phase
3) flow
Stomach (4 major cell types)
Mucous Cells- makes mucous
Chief Cells- Synthesis Pepsinogen
Parietal Cells- Est. a H+ gradient
G Cells- Secretes Gastrin
Pancreas- 6 major enzymes
1)Trypsin
2)Chymotrypsin
3)pancreatic amylase
4)lipase
5)ribonuclease
5)deoxyribonuclease