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307 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the equation for ΔG°?
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ΔG°=-RT lnKeq
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Covalent Modification
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The addition of a molecule to an enzyme to alter its activity
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Proteolytic Cleavage
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The altering of an enzyme's activity by cleaving it with a protease
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Allosteric Regulation
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The modification of active site specificity through interactions between other sites on the enzyme
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What is the rate of a biological reaction dependent on?
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Substrate and enzyme concentration
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What is Vmax dependent on?
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Enzyme concentration
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When is the rate of a biological reaction proportional to substrate concentration?
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When substrate concentration is low
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What happens to the Vmax of a reaction when the enzyme is competitively inhibited?
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The Vmax is unchanged
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What happens to the Km of a reaction when the enzyme is competitively inhibited?
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The Km increases
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What happens to the Vmax of a biological reaction when the enzyme is noncompetitively inhibited?
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The Vmax decreases
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What happens to the Km of a biological reaction when the enzyme is noncompetitively inhibited?
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The Km is unchanged
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Cofactor
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An organic or inorganic substance necessary for enzyme function, but does not bind to the enzyme
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Name the two Name the two types of cofactors
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coenzymes and metal ions
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Name the two types of coenzymes
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prosthetic groups and cosubstrates
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Prosthetic groups
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non-protein molecules covalently bonded to an enzyme active site
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Cosubstrates
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Reversibly bind and transfer a chemical group to another substrate
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Eicosanoids
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Local hormones that regulate blood pressure, body temp, smooth muscle contraction
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Name the three types of eicosanoids
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prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes
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What is the overall reaction of cellular respiration?
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
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What does Oxidation mean?
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1. Attach oxygen
2. Increase the number of bonds to oxygen 3. Remove hydrogen 4. Remove electrons |
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What kind of energy does reduction store?
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potential energy
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What does Reduction mean?
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1. remove oxygen
2. decrease the number of bonds bound to oxygen 3. add hydrogen 4. add electrons |
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What is the overall reaction for Glycolysis?
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Glucose+2ADP+2P+2NAD+-->2pyruvate+2NADH+2H2O+2H
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Is Glycolysis a facultative anaerobic or obligate anaerobic process?
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Facultative anaerobic
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What is the overall reaction for alcohol fermentation?
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Pyruvate+H-->CO2+acetylaldehyde+NADH+H-->NAD+ethanol
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What is the overall reaction for lactic acid fermentation?
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Pyruvate+NADH+H-->lactate+NAD
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In which organ is lactate converted back to pyruvate?
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Liver
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What is the overall reaction for the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex?
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2pyruvate+CoA-SH+NAD-->CO2+AcetylCoA+NADH
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By what mechanism does Pyruvate Dehydrogenase reduce pyruvate?
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Oxidative decarboxylation
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What upregulates the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex enzyme?
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High AMP
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What are the products for the Kreb's Cycle?
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2GTP, 6NADH, 2FADH2, and 4CO2
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Where are amino acids deaminated?
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Liver
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What are amino acids converted to in the liver?
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Pyruvic acid and acetyl CoA
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Oxidative phosphorylation
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The oxidation of high energy electrons to convert ADP into ATP
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Is NADH Dehydrogenase Oxidized or Reduced in the electron transport chain?
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Reduced
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How many protons are needed to make 1 ATP?
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4
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How many ATP molecules are produced from 1 glucose molecule?
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3
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During which phase of mitosis does DNA replication take place?
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S
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How many origins of replication do chromosomes have?
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several
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What is the function of DNA Polymerase I?
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Removes RNA primer and replaces it with DNA
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What is the function of DNA polymerase III?
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elongates and has a 3->5 proofreading mechanism
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What kind of RNA does RNA polymerase I make?
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rRNA
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What kind of RNA does RNA polymerase II make?
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mRNA
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What kind of RNA does RNA polymerase III make?
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tRNA
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Does peptide bind formation have a high or low ΔG and Ea?
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both High
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What is the function of DNA polymerase III?
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elongates and has a 3->5 proofreading mechanism
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What kind of RNA does RNA polymerase I make?
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rRNA
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What kind of RNA does RNA polymerase II make?
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mRNA
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What kind of RNA does RNA polymerase III make?
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tRNA
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Does peptide bind formation have a high or low ΔG and Ea?
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both High
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How many ATP are required to make a protein 300 amino acids long?
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1199
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Do eukaryotes or prokaryotes have 50S and 30S ribosome subunits?
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Prokaryotes
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How large are the Eukaryotic ribosomal subunits?
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60S and 40S
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Which site on the ribosome does the growing polypeptide chain sit: A, P, or E?
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P
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Do cytoplasmic proteins have signal sequences?
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no
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From which kinds of proteins are signal sequences removed from?
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secreted proteins
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Forward Mutation
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A mutation that makes DNA more different than wild type
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backward mutation
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A mutation that reverts DNA back to the wild type
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All viruses have a ?
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capsid
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What is the envelope of a virus derived from?
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The membrane of the host cell
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Eclipse phase
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From infection to lysis
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Which enzyme is translated first in the lytic cycle: Hydrolase or Lysozyme?
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Hydrolase
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Do +RNA viruses need to carry RNA dependent RNA polymerases?
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No
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Do -RNA viruses need to carry RNA dependent RNA polymerases in their capsids?
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Yes
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What kind of enzyme do retroviruses use to replicate genome?
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RNA dependent DNA polymerase
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What shape are cocci bacteria?
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round
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What shape are bacilli bacteria?
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rods
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What is peptidoglycan destroyed by?
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lysozyme
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Name the three major structures of bacterial flagella?
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filament, hook, basal structure
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What is the Log Phase is bacterial reproduction?
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period where growth is linear
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What is the Lag Phase in bacterial reproduction?
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The period before bacteria start growing
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What is the Stationary Phase in bacterial reproduction?
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Period where growth stops due to lack of nutrients
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Does Fungal Asexual reproduction occur under good or bad conditions?
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Good
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Which DNA type is inaccessible to enzymes: Heterochromatin or Euchromatin?
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Heterochromatin
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Where does steroidogenesis occur?
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smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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Where can proteins translated in the rough ER be sent?
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ER, Golgi, Lysosomes, Secreted, Membrane
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What types of acid hydrolases do lysosomes contain?
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Proteases, nucleases, lipases
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What is the approximate pH within a lysosome?
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5
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What is the function of a Peroxisome?
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Lipid breakdown
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Is passive transport thermodynamically or kinetically favorable?
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thermodynamically
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Which transmembrane proteins undergo a conformational change: Voltage gated, carriers, or ligand gated?
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carriers
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name the 3 types of carriers.
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Uniports, antiports, and symports
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Primary active transport
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Momvement against a concentration gradient coupled with ATP hydrolysis
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Secondary active transport
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ATP creates a gradient of another particle that drives the transport
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By which process is cholesterol taken up?
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Receptor mediated endocytosis
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By what mechanism do Glucagon and Epinephrine relay their signals?
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G-protein linked
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What are the three possible effects of a second messenger system?
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1. Activate ion channels
2. activate enzymes 3. regulate transcription |
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How many microtubules make 1 centriole?
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9 triplets
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How many microtubules make up 1 eukaryotic flagellum?
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9 pairs and 2 center
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What protein are microfilaments made out of?
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actin
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Which type of cytoskeleton is responsible for cytokinesis: Microtubules, microfilaments, or intermediate filaments?
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Microfilaments
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Tight junctions
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prevents molecules from moving between cells
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desmosomes
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hold cells together
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Do desmosomes prevent fluid from moving in between cells?
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No
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Gap Junctions
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Pores that allow cytoplasmic contents to mix
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What occurs during the G1 phase of mitosis?
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new organelles and proteins are made
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What occurs during the G2 phase of mitosis?
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The cell decides whether it wants to start mitosis
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What occurs during prophase?
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1. chromatin condenses
2. centrioles move to opposite poles 3. nuclear envelope disappears 4. microtubules move toward centromeres |
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What occurs during Telophase?
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1. nuclear membrane reforms
2. nucleolus reforms |
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Which type of chromosomes are identical: sister chromatids or homologous chromosomes?
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Sister chromatids
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Do homologous chromosomes interact during mitosis?
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No
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Incomplete Dominance
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The Phenotype of a heterozygote is a blended mix of both alleles
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Codominance
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Both alleles are equally expressed
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Pleitropism
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Change of several unrelated phenotypes by 1 gene
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Epistasis
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Expression for one gene is dependent on a different gene
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What is the phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross?
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9:3:3:1
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Principle of segregation
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alleles are passed on randomly
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Independent Assortment
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Alleles of one gene separate independently of other genes
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What are the characteristics of X-linked traits?
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1. female characters have affected males
2. No male to male inheritance |
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mutualism
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one organism benefits , the other is unaffected
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What occurs during prophase I of meiosis?
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Homologous chromosomes pair
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What occurs during Anaphase I of meiosis?
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Homologous separate
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Bipolar neurons
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neurons with one dendrite
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What attributes to the resting membrane potential of a neuron?
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The Na/K ATPase pump and sodium leak channel
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Equilibrium potential
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Potential at which the concentration gradient does not drive ions
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A neuron is at rest. What ions is it impermeable to?
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Potassium
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Name all the types of glial cells.
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Microglia, ependymal cells, satellite cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, neurolemmocytes
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What type of junction exists between neurons and skeletal muscle?
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Neuromuscular junction
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Temporal summation
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rapid addition of action potentials from a single neuron
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Spatial summation
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addition of action potentials from different neurons
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The peripheral nervous system is divided into what two nervous systems?
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Somatic and Autonomic
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The autonomic peripheral nervous system is divided into what two nervous systems?
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Sympathetic and parasympathetic
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Do efferent neurons carry information away or towards the CNS?
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away
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Do afferent neurons carry information towards or away from the CNS?
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toward
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What structures make up the CNS?
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Spinal cord, hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
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The peripheral nervous system is divided into what two nervous systems?
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Somatic and Autonomic
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The autonomic peripheral nervous system is divided into what two nervous systems?
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Sympathetic and parasympathetic
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Do efferent neurons carry information away or towards the CNS?
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away
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Do afferent neurons carry information towards or away from the CNS?
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toward
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What structures make up the CNS?
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Spinal cord, hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
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List all of the structures that make up the hindbrain.
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medulla, pons, cerebellum
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Name all of the structures that make up the forebrain.
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Thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex
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What kind of neurotransmitter do motor neurons use?
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acetylcholine
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What kind of receptor does acetycholine attach to?
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nicotinic
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Where are the cell bodies of motor neurons located in the spinal cord?
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ventral horn
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Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons located in the spinal cord?
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Dorsal root ganglion
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What kind of neurotransmitter do preganglionic autonomic neurons release?
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acetylcholine
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What kind of receptors do postganglionic neurons have?
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nicotinic
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What kind of neurotransmitter do parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release?
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Acetylcholine
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What kind of receptor does acetylcholine bind to in the parasympathetic nervous system?
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muscarinic
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Where is epinephrine secreted?
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adrenal medulla
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What does the adrenal cortex secrete?
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glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
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What kind of steroid is aldosterone?
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mineralocorticoid
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What kind of steroid is cortisol?
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glucocorticoid
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Will contracting the ciliary muscles make the lens more circular or more flat?
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more circular
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Name all of the hormones secreted by the Anterior Pituitary.
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HGH, Prolactin, TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH
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What kind of hormone is HGH: peptide or steroid?
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Peptide
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What kind of hormone is Prolactin: peptide or steroid?
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Peptide
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Name all of the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary.
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ADH and Oxytocin
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What kind of hormones are Oxytocin and ADH?
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Peptide
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Where is calcitonin secreted?
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Thyroid
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What kind of hormone is calcitonin?
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peptide
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What are the effects of cortisol?
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Causes gluconeogenesis and degrades adipose tissue
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What does somatostatin do?
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Inhibits insulin and glucagon
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Where are estrogen and progesterone secreted?
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Ovaries
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Stroke volume
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amount of blood pumped with each contraction
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Cardiac output
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Volume of blood pumped per minute
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How would you increase venous return?
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Increase blood volume and contract large veins
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Where does contraction begin in the heart?
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SA node
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What is the equation for vessel resistance?
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R=ΔP/Q where ΔP is pressure and Q is blood flow
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If you increase the cross sectional surface area of a vessel what happens to the blood velocity?
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It decreases
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If a person has blood type A, what kind of antibodies and antigens do they have?
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B antibodies and A antigens
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What kinds of cells do B cells differentiate into?
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Plasma cells or memory B cells
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In which immunological system are antibodies released as a form of protection?
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Humoral Immunity
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What kinds of cells do T-cells differentiate into?
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T-helpers and Cytotoxic T cells
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What do Helper T cells do?
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Activate B and Cytotoxic T cells
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What kinds of cells do Cytotoxic T cells attack?
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Virus infected cells, cancer cells
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What chemical do Cytotoxic T cells release?
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perforin
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What does MHC I do?
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Acquire peptides and display them on surface of cell
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On what cell types is MHC II found?
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Antigen presenting cells like: Macrophages and B cells
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Blood in the kidney flows from the renal artery to the ? arteriole.
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afferent
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What occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule of the kidney?
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Sodium is reabsorbed by the Na/K ATPase. Hydrogen is secreted. Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by secondary active transport
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What occurs in the distal convolued tubule?
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Sodium reabsorption is regulated by aldosterone. HCO3 and K are secreted. Water rebaosrption is regulated by ADH.
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Which loop of Henle is permeable to water: Descending or Ascending?
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Descending
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Which loop of Henle passively loses ions: Descending or Ascending?
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Ascending
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Where is Renin secreted from?
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Juxtaglomerular cells
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What does Renin do?
|
Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
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What is angiotensin I converted into?
|
Angiotensin II
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What is secreted in the kidney when pH is too high?
|
Bicarbonate
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What is secreted in the kidney when pH is too low?
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Hydrogen
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What does Hyperventilation help counteract?
|
Increasing H2CO3 concentration and decreasing blood pH.
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How many fatty acids are produced by triglyceride breakdown?
|
2
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What enzyme is used to breakdown triglycerides?
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pancreatic lipase
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Polysaccharides are broken down into disaccharides by which enzyme?
|
pancreatic amylase
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Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by which enzymes?
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Maltase, lactase, sucrase
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Polypeptides are broken down into di- and tri- peptides by which enzyme?
|
pepsin, pancreatic proteases: trypsin and chymotrypsin)
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Dipeptides and tripeptides are broken down by which enzymes?
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brush border peptidases
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What kind of tissue is the submucosa of the GI tract?
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Connective
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What kind of tissue is the circular muscularis of the GI tract?
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Smooth muscle
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What kind of tissue is the longitudinal muscularis of the GI tract?
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Smooth muscle
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What kind of tissue is the serosa of the GI tract?
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Connective
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Which nervous system stimulates the GI tract?
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parasympathetic
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What are the exocrine glands called that release GI secretions into the intestines?
|
Acinar cells
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Name the 3 major enzymes that are released in the mouth during fragmentation.
|
Salivary amylase, lingual lipase, lysozyme
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What do Parietal Cells secrete?
|
HCl
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What does HCl do in the stomach?
|
Converts pepsinogen into pepsin
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What cells secrete pepsinogen in the stomach?
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Chief cells
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Chief cells are activated by what process?
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Acid proteolysis
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Which hormone closes the pyloric sphinctor?
|
Cholecystokinin
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What do G cells secrete?
|
Gastrin
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What is the function of gastrin?
|
stimulates acid and pepsin secretion
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What is the pH in the Duodenum?
|
6
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Amino acids and monosaccharides are absorbed in the intestines by what structure?
|
microvilli
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What does the pancreatic duct do?
|
delivers exocrine secretions to the intestine
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What does enterokinase do in the duodenum?
|
converts trypsinogen into trypsin
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Which duodenal hormone causes the pancreas to release bicarbonate?
|
secretin
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List all of the 5 major enzymes secreted by the exocrine pancreas.
|
Pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, pancreatic proteases, nucleases, trypsin
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What do alpha cells in the pancreas secrete?
|
Glucagon
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What does glucagon do?
|
increases blood glucose levels
|
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Which endocrine cells in the pancreas secrete insulin?
|
beta cells
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What do Gamma cells secrete in the pancreas?
|
Somatostatin
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What does Somatostatin do?
|
inhibits digestion
|
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The liver receives oxygenated blood from the ?
|
Hepatic arteries
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The liver receives venous blood from the ?
|
Hepatic portal vein
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If glucose 6 phosphatase were absent in the liver, how would this affect the flow of glucose?
|
Glucose would not be able to leave the liver
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Chylomicrons are degraded into what 3 components?
|
triglycerides, glycerol, cholesterol
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Degradation of chylomicrons creates what?
|
ketone bodies
|
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Does an increase in ketone bodies cause an increase or decrease in pH?
|
decrease
|
|
|
Which of the following is a fat soluble vitamin: C, B1, E, or B2?
|
E
|
|
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What does vitamin E do?
|
Prevents oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids
|
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Is vitamin K an fat soluble or water soluble vitamin?
|
fat soluble
|
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What does vitamin K do?
|
Helps form clotting factors
|
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What does Vitamin D do?
|
Increases calcium absorption in the gut and regulated bone formation
|
|
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Is Vitamin B1 a water soluble or fat soluble vitamin?
|
Water soluble
|
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What is vitamin B2 converted into?
|
FAD
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What is Vitamin B3 converted into?
|
NAD
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Tendon
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Muscle to bone
|
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Ligament
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bone to bone
|
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Are muscle fibers multinucleate?
|
yes
|
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|
I band
|
Region of thin filaments
|
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A band
|
length of thick filaments
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Where does calcium bind during contraction?
|
troponin
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What protein covers actin binding sites?
|
tropomyosin
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Which muscle type uses ATP most slowly?
|
Slow Oxidative
|
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Which muscle type is slowest to fatigue: Fast oxdative, slow oxidative, or fast glycolytic?
|
slow oxidative
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Which muscle type is fastest to fatigue: Fast oxidative, fast glycolytic, or slow oxidative?
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fast glycolytic
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Which muscle type contains the most glycogen?
|
fast glycolytic
|
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What happens when you "build" muscle?
|
Sarcomeres lengthen, number of sarcomeres increases, diameter of fiber increases
|
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How does calcium leave the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
|
Voltage gated calcium channels
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Does smooth muscle have T tubules?
|
no
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Is smooth muscle mono or multiucleate?
|
Mononucleate
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What kinds of cells is connective tissue derived from?
|
fibroblasts
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Is adipose tissue loose or dense connective tissue?
|
loose
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Tendons, ligaments, and ______ are all considered dense connective tissues.
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bone
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|
|
Hydroxyapatite
|
calcium phosphate crystals
|
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What do Haversian Canals contain?
|
blood, lymph vessels, and nerves
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Osteocytes are connected by ?
|
gap junctions
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What structure horizontally connects osteons?
|
Volkmann's canals
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Name the three types of cartilage?
|
Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrous
|
|
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Which type of cartilage is the strongest?
|
Fibrous
|
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What do osteoblasts do?
|
construct bone
|
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Osteoblasts eventually become ?
|
osteocytes
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|
|
DO osteoblasts undergo mitosis?
|
No
|
|
|
Parathyroid hormone
|
increases blood calcium
|
|
|
Calcitonin
|
decreases blood calcium
|
|
|
Hyperventilation is associated with respiratory _________.
|
alkalosis
|
|
|
Hypoventilation is asociated with respiratory __________.
|
acidosis
|
|
|
What does surfactant help reduce?
|
surface tension
|
|
|
Tidal volume
|
amount of air that moves in and out at rest
|
|
|
Expiratory reserve volume
|
amount of air that can be expelled after a resting expiration
|
|
|
Inspiratory reserve volume
|
amount of air that can be inspired after a resting inspiration
|
|
|
functional residual capacity
|
amount of air left after a resting expiration
|
|
|
inspiratory capacity
|
maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a resting expiration
|
|
|
residual volume
|
amount of air that remains in the lung after strongest expiration
|
|
|
Vital capacity
|
maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after the strongest inspiration
|
|
|
Where does spermatogensis take place?
|
in the seminiferous tubules
|
|
|
What cells surround the seminiferous tubules?
|
sertoli cells
|
|
|
Testosterone is secreted by ________ cells in the _________.
|
Leydig cells; testes
|
|
|
Seminiferous tubules lead to the _________.
|
epididymis
|
|
|
What do the seminal vesicles secrete?
|
semen
|
|
|
Semen is secreted by what three structures?
|
Seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands
|
|
|
List the following in the correct order of spermatogensis: Spermatid, Secondary spermatocyte, spermatogonium, spermatozoa, primary spermatocyte.
|
Spermatogonium, primary spermatocyte, secondary spermatocyte, spermatid, spermatozoa
|
|
|
After Meiosis I, a spermatogonium is called a ____________.
|
Primary Spermatocyte
|
|
|
What does LH do in males?
|
Stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone
|
|
|
What does FSH do in males?
|
Stimulates sertoli cells around the seminiferous tubules
|
|
|
Inhibin is secreted by _________.
|
sertoli cells
|
|
|
What does inhibin do in males?
|
inhibits FSH release
|
|
|
What are the main effects of testosterone?
|
Produces secondary sex characteristics
|
|
|
Is testosterone required for spermatogenesis?
|
yes
|
|
|
Where is Gonadotropin releasing hormone released from?
|
Hypothalamus
|
|
|
What is the function of Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone?
|
Stimulates FSH and LH release
|
|
|
Male development begins with the __________ inhibiting factor.
|
Mullerian
|
|
|
Order these structures from earliest to latest in females: primary oocyte, secondary oocyte, ovum, oogonia.
|
Oogonia, primary oocyte, secondary oocyte, ovum
|
|
|
At which phase of meiosis is a primary oocyte stopped at?
|
prophase 1
|
|
|
Granulosa cells secrete _________.
|
estrogen
|
|
|
What structure is the result of the completion of meiosis 1 in females?
|
Secondary oocyte and a polar body
|
|
|
Name the 3 phases in the Ovarian cycle.
|
Follicular, Ovulatory, and Luteal
|
|
|
Does estrogen inhibit or stimulate the secretion of LH and FSH in the follicular phase?
|
Inhibits
|
|
|
Which hormone stimulates the maturation of the primary follicle?
|
FSH
|
|
|
At which phase in the Ovarian cycle do estrogen levels reach threshold?
|
Ovulatory
|
|
|
The secondary oocyte is released during which phase of the menstrual cycle?
|
Ovulatory
|
|
|
The corpus luteum forms during the __________ phase.
|
Ovulatory
|
|
|
During the Luteal phase, _________ stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete__________ and __________
|
LH; estrogen and progesterone
|
|
|
Name the 3 phases of the Uterine cycle.
|
Menstruation, proliferative, and secretory
|
|
|
The corpus luteum degenerates during which phase in the Uterine cycle?
|
Menstruation
|
|
|
Which layer does the sperm move through first: Corona radiata or zona pellucida.
|
Corona Radiata
|
|
|
What does the Chorion secrete?
|
Human chorionic gonadotropin
|
|
|
What is the function of HCG?
|
Secretes LH so the endometrium doesn't slough off
|
|
|
The chorion is derived from what structure?
|
The zygote
|
|
|
Fast block to polyspermy
|
Plasma membrane depolarizes
|
|
|
List these structures in order of development: Brain/spinal cord, neural tube, dorsal neural groove.
|
dorsal neural groove, neural tube, brain/spinal cord
|
|
|
What does oxytocin do?
|
stimulates milk release
|
|
|
Order these events in chronological order: Birth, Cervix dilation, expulsion of the placenta.
|
cervix dilation, birth, expulsion of the placenta
|
|
|
What does prolactin do?
|
Produces milk
|
|
|
What is inhibited by Prolactin?
|
Estrogen and progesterone
|
|
|
northern blot
|
mRNA
|
|
|
Western blot
|
Proteins
|
