Bio Exam 3

Front 1

transduction

Back 1

conversion of an external stimulus into an action potential inside the cell

Front 2

amplification

Back 2

increase of signal

Front 3

transmission

Back 3

propagation of signal to CNS

Front 4

integration

Back 4

processing signal by CNS

Front 5

sensory receptors

Back 5

convert stimulus to an electrical signal

Front 6

nociceptors

Back 6

pain receptor

Front 7

thermoreceptor

Back 7

temperature receptor

Front 8

mechanoreceptors

Back 8

touch and pressure receptor

Front 9

chemoreceptor

Back 9

molecule receptor

Front 10

photoreceptor

Back 10

light receptor

Front 11

electroreceptor

Back 11

electrical field receptor

Front 12

sensory transduction

Back 12

based on changes in membrane voltage, the inside of the cell is negative relative to the outside

Front 13

frequency

Back 13

# of waves/sec

Front 14

sound

Back 14

produced by waves of pressure in air or water

Front 15

efferent sensory neuron

Back 15

away from CNS

Front 16

afferent sensory neuron

Back 16

towards the CNS

Front 17

outer ear

Back 17

ear and ear canal, collects pressure waves(travel in air)

Front 18

middle ear

Back 18

amplifies sound, sound travels in fluid

Front 19

Ear ossicles(bones)

Back 19

malleus, incus, and stapes

Front 20

inner ear

Back 20

3 fluid-filled chambers, cochlea detects frequencies between basilar and tectorial membranes

Front 21

human range of hearing

Back 21

20-20,000 Hz

Front 22

elephants and whales range of hearing

Back 22

<20 Hz, infrasonic, communicate long distances

Front 23

bats and dolphins range of hearing

Back 23

20-100 kHz, ultrasonic, echolocation communication

Front 24

ommatidia

Back 24

functional units of insect eyes, contain lens and receptor cells, compound eyes

Front 25

sclera

Back 25

outer layer of human eye, tough white tissue, clear at cornea, protective

Front 26

iris

Back 26

controls amount of light entering eye

Front 27

pupil

Back 27

eye opening

Front 28

lens

Back 28

focuses light to retina

Front 29

retina

Back 29

photoreceptors found here, arranged in layers, ganglion cells connect to optic nerve

Front 30

fovea

Back 30

high number of photoreceptors in the retina

Front 31

photoreceptors

Back 31

includes rod cells, cone cells, rhodopsin, retinal, transducin

Front 32

rod cells

Back 32

used in dim light and night vision

Front 33

cone cells

Back 33

used for color

Front 34

rhodopsin

Back 34

transmembrane protein complex made of opsin and retinal

Front 35

retinal

Back 35

pigment that absorbs light and changes shape

Front 36

visible spectrum

Back 36

350-700 nm

Front 37

hereditary color blindness

Back 37

sex-linked recessive condition on X chromosome

Front 38

taste buds

Back 38

pore on the tongue with taste cells

Front 39

salty and sour tastes (acid)

Back 39

taste detected directly thru sodium and hydrogen ions, ions diffuse thru channels into taste cells

Front 40

bitter, sweet and meaty

Back 40

taste detected indirectly, requires tansmembrane receptors

Front 41

smell pathway

Back 41

odor molecules-->nasal cavity-->brain

Front 42

locamotion

Back 42

movement of body under its own power due to muscle contractions

Front 43

endoskeleton

Back 43

skeleton found in vertebrates, made of cartilage and bone

Front 44

exoskeleton

Back 44

skeleton found in insects

Front 45

hydrostatic

Back 45

skeleton found in earthworms, circumferential and longitudinal muscles contract and relax

Front 46

cartliage

Back 46

provides cushioning for the skeleton

Front 47

bone

Back 47

provides structural suppose for the skeleton, made of CaPO4, CaCO3, and protein matrix

Front 48

joints

Back 48

connects bone to bone
ex: ball and socket (swivel, shoulder)
hinge(elbow)

Front 49

tendon

Back 49

anchors muscle to bone

Front 50

antagonistic muscles

Back 50

flexor and extensor

Front 51

skeletal muscle

Back 51

attached to bones, moves skeleton, multinucleate, voluntary movement, unbranched cells

Front 52

cardiac muscle

Back 52

pump blood, 1 or 2 nuclei, non-voluntary, branched cells

Front 53

smooth muscle

Back 53

unbranched cells, single nucleus, non-voluntary, intestines, arteries and others

Front 54

taxon

Back 54

a named group

Front 55

terminal node

Back 55

extant(living) taxon

Front 56

internal node

Back 56

ancestor taxon

Front 57

clade

Back 57

an evolutionary unit that contains an ancestor and all of its descendants

Front 58

polytomy

Back 58

multiple taxa at the same node due to either not enough data or rapid speciation

Front 59

monophyletic

Back 59

group that includes an ancestor and all of its descendants
ex: amniotes

Front 60

paraphyletic

Back 60

a group that includes an ancestor and some of its descendants
ex: reptiles

Front 61

polyphyletic

Back 61

does not include the most recent common ancestor
ex: homeotherms

Front 62

neurons

Back 62

nerve cells, transmit information, small, transparent, morphologically complex

Front 63

sensory neurons

Back 63

sensory receptors that monitor homeostasis in the skin, eyes, ears and nose, transmits info from external environment to the brain

Front 64

motor neuron

Back 64

nerve cells that send signals to effector cells in glands or muscles

Front 65

interneuron

Back 65

transmits info from sensory to motor neurons

Front 66

electrical signal pathway

Back 66

sensory receptor(eye)->sensory neuron(brain)->interneuron(CNS)->motor neuron(PNS)->effector(muscle)

Front 67

reflex

Back 67

direct response to a signal that bypasses that brain, often associated with pain

Front 68

cell body(soma) of a neuron

Back 68

includes nucleus, integrates the incoming signals and generates outgoing signals to the axon

Front 69

dendrites of the neuron

Back 69

highly branched group of short projections, receives electrical signal from axon of adjacent cells

Front 70

axon of neuron

Back 70

long projection that sends signals to dendrites of other cells

Front 71

synapses

Back 71

junction between dendrites and axons from another cell

Front 72

what is an action potential?

Back 72

rapid depolarization/repolarization across the membrane, no partial, propagated down axin

Front 73

phases of action potential

Back 73

1. resting state: channels closed
2. depolarization: Na+ channels open, K+ channels close
3. repolarization: K+ channels open, Na+ channels close
4. undershoot: membrane becomes more negative than resting state

Front 74

Myelinated axons (Schwann cells)

Back 74

wrap around the axons of neurons of the PNS, accessory cells that support neurons and provide electrical insulation

Front 75

Multiple Sclerosis

Back 75

myelin degenerates, weakens muscles and loss of coordination

Front 76

synaptic vesicles

Back 76

stores neurotransmitters and releases them; binds receptors to next neuron

Front 77

parasympathetic nerves

Back 77

promotes relaxation and digestion, originates at brain or spinal cord

Front 78

sympathetic nerves

Back 78

prepares organs for stressful situations, originate at central portion of spinal cord

Front 79

pons

Back 79

relays sensory information to cerebellum

Front 80

medulla

Back 80

autonomic center for regulating heart, lungs and digestive system

Front 81

cerebellum

Back 81

coordinates complex motor patterns

Front 82

lobes of the brain

Back 82

frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital

Front 83

cerebrume

Back 83

conscious thought and memory

Front 84

bacteria

Back 84

prokaryotic, unicellular, no organelles

Front 85

bioremediation

Back 85

use of bacteria to clean up a beach contaminated by an oil spill

Front 86

extremophiles

Back 86

live in very harsh environments such as high salt, high pressure, extreme temps
ex: deep sea thermal vents

Front 87

cyanobacteria

Back 87

photosynthetic bacteria, first organisms to perform oxygenic photosynthesis, led to evolution of multicellularity and larger body sizes

Front 88

suspension culture

Back 88

used to study bacteria in a liquid medium

Front 89

agar plates

Back 89

used to study bacteria on a solid medium

Front 90

enrichment cultures

Back 90

used to isolate or grow bacteria by setting up conditions favorable to the bacteria of interest and unfavorable to other thru physical conditions or nutrient content

Front 91

gram-positive

Back 91

purple, plasma membrane surrounded by cell wall with peptidoglycan

Front 92

gram-negative

Back 92

pink, plasma membrane surrounded by cell wall that has thin peptidoglycan layer and phosopholipid bilayer

Front 93

phototroph

Back 93

produces ATP thru light energy

Front 94

organotroph

Back 94

produces ATP thru oxidized organic molecules

Front 95

lithotroph

Back 95

produces ATP thru oxidized inorgnanic molecules

Front 96

Spirochaeles

Back 96

oldest group of bacteria
spiral
aquatic environment
responsible for syphilis and lyme disease

Front 97

Chlamydiales

Back 97

spherical
parasitic(endosymbionts)
responsible for blindness and urogenital tract infection

Front 98

High-GC Gram Positives

Back 98

rod-shaped or filamentous
antibiotics
soil-dwelling decomposers
responsible for TB and leprosy

Front 99

Cyanobacteria

Back 99

some of the most abundant organisms
oxygen photosynthesis
nitrogen fixers

Front 100

Low-GC Gram Positives

Back 100

rod-shaped or spherical
nitrogen-fixers
responsible for anthrax, botulism, tetanus, step throat
natural insecticides
fermenation

Front 101

proteobacteria

Back 101

rod, spheres or spiral
nitrogen-fixers
GMO uses
transgenic plants
responsible for cholera, gonorrhea and ulcers

Front 102

Crenarchaeota

Back 102

archaea, lives in extreme environments

Front 103

Euryachaeota

Back 103

archaea
salt lovers(halophiles)
soil and gut methanogens
pollute streams with acid wastes

Front 104

lateral gene transfer

Back 104

polyphyletic distribution of photosynthetic groups, contributed to evolution of drug resistance in bacteria

Front 105

asexual reproduction

Back 105

based on mitosis
genetically identical to parent
mechanisms: clone, budding, fission, pathenogenesis

Front 106

cloning

Back 106

produce large numbers of identical copies of themselves

Front 107

budding

Back 107

offspring begin to form within a parent and then breaks free and grows on its own

Front 108

fission

Back 108

individual simply splits in two or more descendants

Front 109

parthenogensis

Back 109

female offspring develop from unfertilized eggs

Front 110

sexual reproduction

Back 110

based on meiosis
genetically new individual

Front 111

gametogenesis

Back 111

mitotic and meiotic cell divisions and development of male and female gametes

Front 112

spermatogenesis

Back 112

formation of sperm in the testes

Front 113

oogenesis

Back 113

formation of eggs in the ovaries

Front 114

pathway of spermatogenesis

Back 114

spermatogonia(diploid)->divide by mitosis->primary spermatocytes->meiosis I->secondary spermatocytes->meiosis II->4 haploid spermatids->sperm

Front 115

pathway of oogenesis

Back 115

oogonia->divides by mitosis->primary oocyte->meiosis->4 haploid products->egg
3 become polar bodies
1 becomes egg

Front 116

fertilization

Back 116

joining of a sperm and egg to form a zygote

Front 117

external fertilization

Back 117

aquatic environments
produce large numbers of gametes
pheromones involved in synchronizing gamete release

Front 118

internal copulation

Back 118

males deposit sperm directly into female reproductive tract with the penis

Front 119

internal spermatophore

Back 119

sperm package that is placed into the female's reproductive tract

Front 120

sperm competition

Back 120

competition between sperm from different males to fertilize the eggs of the same female

Front 121

oviparous "egg bearing"

Back 121

embryo develops in external environment
eggs and embryos left to fend for themselves
ex: sea urchins, sea stars, some insects, birds and some lizards

Front 122

viviparous "live bearing"

Back 122

developments inside mother's body
embryo attaches to reproductive tract and receives nutrition directly from mother's circulatory system
ex: guppies, humans, sharks, mammals and some lizards

Front 123

scrotum

Back 123

saclike, holds the testes in males

Front 124

penis

Back 124

copulation in males

Front 125

testes

Back 125

produces sperm

Front 126

epididymis

Back 126

stores sperm

Front 127

accessory fluids in semen

Back 127

formed in seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland

Front 128

vas deferens

Back 128

stores and transport semen to ejaculatory gland

Front 129

baculum

Back 129

bone found in penis, but not in humans

Front 130

labia minora and labia majora

Back 130

folds of skin that cover clitoris, opening to urethra and vagina

Front 131

clitoris

Back 131

sensitive organ that develops from the same embryonic cells as a penis

Front 132

vagina

Back 132

birth canal, where semen is deposited

Front 133

ovaries

Back 133

produce eggs

Front 134

ovulation

Back 134

oocyte enters oviduct(site of fertilization)

Front 135

uterus

Back 135

fertilized egg transported here and embryo develops

Front 136

estradiol(estrogen)

Back 136

synthesized in ovaries, produced by follice(cells surrounding developing of egg)

Front 137

testosterone

Back 137

synthesized in testes

Front 138

puberty

Back 138

triggered by increased levels of testosterone and estradiol
1. hypothalamus releases GnRH
2. pituitary gland releases LH and FSH

Front 139

menustration

Back 139

the expulsion of the uterine lining, follicular and luteal phases

Front 140

follicular phase of menustration

Back 140

follicle matures and releases its secondary oocyte into the oviduct

Front 141

luteal phase of menustration

Back 141

formation and subsequent degeneration of the corpus luteum from the ruptured follicle

Front 142

menstrual cycle

Back 142

1. formation of primary oocytes in follicles
2. follicle growth
3. maturation of follicle
4. ovulation, secondary oocyte to oviduct
5. degeneration of corpus luteum

Front 143

implantation

Back 143

embryo becomes embedded in the uterus wall, cells synthesize hCG which prevents corpus luteum from degenerating

Front 144

1st trimester

Back 144

formation of embryonic tissue
formation of organs and systems
heart pumps blood
amnion develops around embryo
placenta forms

Front 145

placenta

Back 145

source of nutrition, exchange of gases, nutrients and waste thru umbilical cord from mother to embryo

Front 146

2nd and 3rd trimester

Back 146

growth
brain and lungs develop last

Front 147

alcohol consumption during pregnancy causes

Back 147

high risk of hyperactivity, severe learning disabilities, depression and degenerates neurons

Front 148

Thalidomide

Back 148

chemical that can be diffused into fetal bloodstream and cause sever birth defects

Front 149

Protists

Back 149

eukaryotic
morphologically disverse
multicellular
paraphyletic
abundant in aquatic habitats

Front 150

protists causing Malaria

Back 150

most chronic health problem
4 species of Plasmodium found in mosquitoes, evolved resistance to drugs

Front 151

Phytophthora

Back 151

"plant destroyer" causes red tide due to algal bloom

Front 152

endosymbiosis

Back 152

theory that organelles were acquired when mitochondria originated when a bacterial cell took up residence inside a eukaryote

Front 153

protist ingestive feeding

Back 153

pseudopodia engulf food
ciliary currents sweep food into gullet

Front 154

protist absorptive feeding

Back 154

decomposers: feed on dead organic matter
parasites: lives inside host cell and damages it

Front 155

protist movement via

Back 155

cell crawling(pseudopodia)
swimming(flagella or cilia)

Front 156

virus

Back 156

obligate intracellular parasites, particles or agents, have their own genome(DNA or RNA), adapt and evolve

Front 157

Viruses lack...

Back 157

plasma membrane
ability to carry out transcription and translation independently
metabolic capabilities

Front 158

epidemic

Back 158

spread of an infectious disease thru a large population in a short time

Front 159

virulent

Back 159

ability of a pathogen or parasite to cause disease or death

Front 160

AIDs

Back 160

caused by HIV, attacks helper T-cells and macrophages, they slowly decline in number, causes body's immune system to not respond

Front 161

how vaccination works

Back 161

1. viral antigens introduced to body
2. immune system recognized antigens
3. immune system produces antibodies to the virus
4. if the host is again exposed to a live virus, the immune system will already have the antibodies to destroy the virus

Front 162

inactivated (killed) vaccines

Back 162

viral genes are damaged by chemical treatment or UV radiation
ex: hepatitis A, flu

Front 163

attenuated (live) vaccines

Back 163

consist of complete virus particles that lack virulence
ex: measles, polio, smallpox

Front 164

non-enveloped virus

Back 164

enclosed by a capsid(protein shell)

Front 165

enveloped virus

Back 165

enclosed by a capsid and membrane-like envelope