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144 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Anatomy
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study of structure and their relationships
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Physiology
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study of the structure’s function (biochemistry)
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Pathology
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study of disease
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Anatomical Position
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the body is assumed to be standing, the feet together, the arms to the side, and the head and eyes and palms of the hands facing forwards
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Supine
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standing face forward or laying on your back, hands at sides, palms forward
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Prone
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laying on your stomach, palms facing the way you're prone to standing
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who's right or left?
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the patient's
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Anterior & Posterior
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Front versus back
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Ventral & Dorsal
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Front versus back
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Superior & Inferior
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Above versus below
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Medial & Lateral
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Center versus off a side
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Proximal & Distal
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where the appendage joins the body,versus furthest from the point of attachment to the body
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Ipsilateral & Contralateral
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On the same side versus on the opposite sides
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Frontal (coronal) plane
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divides body into anterior / posterior sections
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Transverse plane
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horizontal or cross-sectional division
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Sagittal plane
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longitudinal - divides area into right / left side
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cranial cavity
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the space formed inside the skull, which the brain occupies
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vertebral or spinal canal
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the space in vertebrae through which the spinal cord passes
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meninges
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the system of membranes which envelops the central nervous system
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thoracic cavity
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the cavity in the vertebrate body enclosed by the ribs between the diaphragm and the neck and containing the lungs and heart
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pericardial cavity
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the fluid filled sac that surrounds the heart and the proximal ends of the aorta, vena cava, and the pulmonary artery
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mediastinum
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the mass of tissues and organs separating the two pleural sacs, between the sternum in front and the vertebral column behind, containing the heart and its large vessels, trachea, esophagus, thymus, lymph nodes, and other structures and tissues
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pleural cavity
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the potential space between the two pleura (visceral and parietal) of the lungs
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abdominopelvic (peritoneal cavity)
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abdominal cavity
pelvic cavity visceral organs |
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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
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RUQ---LUQ
RLQ---LLQ |
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visceral organs
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the internal organs of the body, specifically those within the chest (as the heart or lungs) or abdomen (as the liver, pancreas or intestines)
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Support, Movement, Protection are offered by which organs? (3)
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Integumentary
Skeletal Muscular |
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Integration & Coordination are offered by which organs? (2)
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Nervous
Endocrine |
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Maintenance is offered by which organs? (5)
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Cardiovascular
Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary |
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Reproduction & Development are offered by how many organs? (1)
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The reproductive system
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Homeostasis
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systems working together to maintain stable internal conditions + dynamic equilibrium, negative and positive feedback, controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
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Positive feedback
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increase in function in response to a stimulus. For example, micturition increases after the flow of urine has started, and the uterus contracts more frequently and with greater strength after it has begun to contract in labor
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Dynamic equilibrium
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the condition of balance between varying, shifting, and opposing forces that is characteristic of living processes
constant fluctuations - temp., HB/ BP/ breathing/ glucose levels |
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Negative feedback
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a decrease in function in response to a stimulus. For example, the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone decreases as the amount of circulating estrogen increases
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Which system is homeostasis controlled by? (2)
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by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
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What is disease from a homeostasis perspective?
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Disease is failure to maintain homeostasis
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KInds of disease (6)
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1) pathogens / parasites
2) genetic conditions 3) loss of immune function 4) degenerative 5) trauma, accidents, environmental hazards 6) nutritional factors |
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Categories of disease (4)
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local : restricted
systemic: several systems acute : sudden / short chronic: develops slowly / long term |
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How many chemical elements are in the human body?
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Fewer than 30
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What are the primary chemicals in the human body?
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C HOPKIN'S CaFe + Cu Co Cl Na
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxigen, Phosporus, Potassium, Iodine, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Calcium, Iron + Copper, Cobalt, Clorene, Sodium 90% of the body is HCNO |
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Atom
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smallest undivided unit of an element, makes up molecules and compounds
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Molecules
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two or more atoms
true building blocks of the body |
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Compounds
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molecules of different elements bonded together, held together by bonds (energy)
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What are the three types of bonds?
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Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen
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Ionic bond
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the attraction between 2 oppositely charged ions. This makes the bond stronger and harder to break. They tend to tend to form inorganic molecules, are weak in water and tend to break apart
Ionic bonds play in important role in electrolytes, making them capable of conducting electricity in water (NaCl), which is important for the nervous / muscle systems |
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Covalent bond
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bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms - are chemical bonds between two non-metal atoms. Covalent bonds are weaker than ionic bonds, and have a lower melting point. They tend to form organic molecules and are strong in water. They are also thought to be poor conductors of electricity and heat
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Hydrogen bond
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electromagnetic attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom that comes from another molecule or chemical group. They form temporary, weak bonds, usually attaching molecules to one another. The hydrogen bond is important for cohesiveness / adhesiveness
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Electrolytes
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the ionized salts present in body fluids that play an important role in functioning of the human body
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Inorganic moledules
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Lack Carbon - water, salts, acids, bases, gases
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Water - % in body, functions in body (6)
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-60% of body mass
-is an important solvent -transporter -lubricates / cushions -stabilizes body temperature -(absorbs / releases heat) -medium for chemical reactions |
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Gases that are important for body (2)
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O2, CO2
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Positively charged electrolytes
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Cations
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Negatively charged electrolytes
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Anions
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What are electrolytes important for in the body?
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The nervous/muscular system
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What determines alkalinity?
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H+
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Acid
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a substance that donates a hydrogen ion (H+) to another substance
has a pH under 7 dissociates in H2O and releases H+ |
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Base
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substance that can accept protons
has a pH of over 7 dissociates in H2O and releases ions that can combine with H+ (OH-) |
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Acidosis
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condition in which there is too much acid in the body fluids
blood H+ is high pH is less than 7.0 |
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Alkalosis
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condition in which there is too much base in the body fluids
blood H+ is low pH is above 7.0 |
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What does pH (high or low) affect in the body?
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high or low pH alters the shape of bio-chemicals and their functions
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Buffers
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minimize pH change caused by excess acids or bases, convert strong acids or bases into a weaker acid or base (act as sponges to absorb or release H+)
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Organic Molecules
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C- based
covalently bonded insoluble in water perform complex body function form Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids |
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What are the four organic macromolecules?
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carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
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What are Carbohydrates?
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body’s building blocks and main source of cell energy
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What are the three kinds of carbohydrates?
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1. monosaccharides (the most basic units of biologically important carbohydrates. They are the simplest form of sugar - aka glucose, fructose, galactose)
2. disaccharides (carbohydrate formed when two monosaccharides undergo a condensation reaction aka sucrose, lactose, maltose) 3. polysaccharides (long carbohydrate molecules of repeated units joined together - aka starch, cellulose) |
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cells
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the basic structural / functional units of the body, it contains organelles
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tissue
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group of similar specialized cells working together to perform a special function
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organ
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structure of definite form and function composed of two or more different tissues
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organ system
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group of organs working together for a common function
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what are the living characteristics?
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maintenance of cellular boundaries
movement metabolism differentiation responsiveness reproduction division (growth, development, repair) |
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What functions do lipids provide?
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store energy
offer protection provide insulation build membrane structure help ingest vitamins |
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What kinds of proteins are there? (4)
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fatty acids (simplest lipids)
triglycerides (most plentiful in body and diet) phospholipids (make up cell membranes) steroids (cholesterol, sex hormones, cortisol, bile, Vit D) |
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Proteins
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building blocks of life
provide repair and maintenance made up of polypeptides |
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polypeptide
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series of amino acids
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what functions do proteins surve? (6)
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a) movement (muscles)
b) structure (muscles / skin) c) transport (O2 / lipoproteins) d) cellular communication (hormones) e) defense (antibodies) f) catalytic/biochemical (enzymes) - regulate biochemical reactions (digestive/metabolic) |
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Enzyme
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biological molecules that catalyze (i.e., increase the rates of) chemical reactions
(highly specific: biochemical / enzyme work in a “lock & key” fit) enzyme names always end with -ase |
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How are proteins denatured?
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With sunlight, fever, cold temperature, drugs
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Nucleic Acids
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contain genetic material
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid composed of genes (traits) RNA = ribonucleic acid relay instructions from genes |
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ATP
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energy molecule
adenosine triphosphate |
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Vitamins
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an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts - most of vitamins are consumed though food
D = only one made in and by the body K = made by bacteria in the large intestine |
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Minerals
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inorganic compounds from plant extracts in the soil (Fe, Co, Cu, Zn)
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Metabolism
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the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells
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Metabolism
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the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells
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Principal parts of cells
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1- plasma membrane
2- cytoplasm 3- nucleus |
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plasma membrane
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phospholipid bi-layer - biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment
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phospholipid bilayer
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thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around cells. They are made up of phosphate / lipids /cholesterol / glycolipids
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membrane proteins
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protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle. These proteins are specifically targeted to different types of biological membranes
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What functions do membrane proteins surve? (5)
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channels (pores)
carriers (transporters) receptors enzymes linkers (anchor cells to one another) identity markers |
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Selective permeability
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membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by diffusion and occasionally specialized "facilitated diffusion". regulates exchanges between ECF / ICF gradient. The speed varies based on shape, solubiltiy, and charges
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phospholipids
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a building block for the lipid bilayer membrane - consisting of a phosphate head and two fatty acid tails
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microvilli
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tiny hairlike folds in the plasma membrane that extend from the surface of many absorptive or secretory cells. They are most clearly visible with an electron microscope but may be seen as a "brush border" with a light microscope. Are useful for faster absorption.
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plasma membrane junctions - what are they, and what kinds are there? (3)
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junctions are kinds of connections between cells (particularly epithelial)
1. tight: impermeable junctions that bind cells into leak proof sheets 2. desmosomes: anchor cells together to prevent being pulled apart 3. gap: communication between cells |
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glycoprotein receptors
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Glycoproteins are small molecules found on the outside surface of all body cells. Different types of cells have specific, unique types of glycoproteins attached to them.
Glycoproteins are vital to a number of important biological functions. They allow certain types of cell-to-cell communication, help coordinate complicated cellular responses to stimuli, and activate the action of other types of cells. blood type, hormone communication, “ID” |
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Types of PM transport (3)
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Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion Osmosis |
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Simple Diffusion
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does not require ATP - random movement of molecules down a concentration gradient using kinetic or thermal energy until an equilibrium is reached (any molecule can diffuse (perfume, dye, O2, CO2) )
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Facilitated Diffusion
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requires carrier molecule to transport from higher to lower concentration (sugars)
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Osmosis
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diffusion of only H2O across the PM where direction of H2O movement is controlled by amount of solutes in the water between ECF (IF) / ICF
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kinds of osmotic conditions (3)
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Isotonic
Hypotonic Hypertonic |
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Isotonic
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H2O moves in and out at same rate, allows cells to keep their normal shape and volume
Normal Saline Solution ( 0.9% NaCl solution) |
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Hypotonic
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less solutes (=more water) in ECF (IF) water moves in to cell (edema or lysis) (RBCs in pure H2O) - cell swells up
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Hypertonic
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more solutes (= less water) in ECF (IF)
water moves out of cell dehydration or crenation (2% NaCl solution) |
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dysplasia
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disordered growth of epithelium cells (like a paps smear exam)
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neoplasia
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uncontrolled cellular growth, which may be malignant. Carcinoma is an example that affects epithelia cells
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hyperplasia
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abnormal multiplication of cells - aka gross enlargement
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hypertrophy
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enlargement of an organ by enlargement of preexisting cells
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atrophy
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decrease in normal size from loss of cellular size or number
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necrosis
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death of a tissue or cell
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apoptosis
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programmed death of a cell
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Filtration
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high pressure (blood pressure) pushes H2O and solutes from high concentration to low concentration
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Endocytosis
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requires ATP for the PM to form an inner pocket to envelop a solute
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Exocytosis
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requires ATP for the PM to release a solute secretion - releases waste and secretions (insulin from insulin-producing cells)
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Cytoplasm
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The cytoplasm is the gel-like substance residing within the cell membrane holding all the cell's internal sub-structures (called organelles), outside the nucleus.
75% water, floats organelles, molecules, etc |
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Essential organelles (5)
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1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - can be rough or smooth. They synthese stuff
2. Golgi apparatus - sort and packages secretions (garbage disposal) 3. Mitochondria - cellular respiration - ATP formation 4. Lysosomes - garbage disposal 5. Centrioles - required for cell division |
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nucleus
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holds the genetic information, aka “blueprints”
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2 kinds of cell division
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mitosis - occurs in somatic cells (2N)
meiosis - produces sperm and ova (1N) |
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Somatic cells
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2N cells that divide by mitosis
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (one from each parent) Specialized cells - longer lived with lesser ability to divide Simpler cells - short lived with greater ability to divide |
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Tumor cells (2)
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Benign VS malignant
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metastasis
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the process of tumor spreading
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histology
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study of tissues
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tissue
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groups of cells with similar shape, size, structure and function
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Four types of cells
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epithelial
connective muscular nervous |
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Epithelial tissue functions (3)
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-covers body surfaces, lines body cavities and hollow organs
-secretes substances -forms glands |
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Epithelial tissue characteristics (4)
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cells have a free surface toward the exterior
avascular: fed by diffusion from deep BVs stretch rapid replacement |
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Cell Shapes (3)
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squamous = flat
cuboid = cubed columnar = column |
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Cell Layers (3)
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simple = 1 layer of cells
stratified = more than 1 layer pseudostratified = 1 layer but appears to be more |
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glands
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epithelial cells adapted for secretion
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Endocrine glands
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ductless (secrete directly into blood - pituitary)
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Exocrine glands
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glands that secrete thru ducts (oil, sweat)
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membrane (epithelial, not plasma)
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thin sheet of epithelial and connective tissues that cover body surface and organs / covers organs
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types of membrane (4)
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mucous membrane - barrier against pathogens
serous membrane - covers organs within body cavities cutaneous membrane - skin synovial membrane - secretes a lubricating fluid in joint cavities |
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Connective tissue
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most diverse and abundant of the tissues, binds organs together, stores energy reserves (fat) and helps provide immunity. Vascular except for cartilage
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Types of connective tissue (5)
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Bone
Cartilage Dense CT - tendons, ligaments Loose CT - adipose tissue Blood/lymph |
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muscle tissue
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uses ATP to generate force for body movement
well vascularized |
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what are muscle cells called?
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fibers (they are spindle-shaped)
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muscle tissue types (3)
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1. skeletal - striated, multi-nucleated, voluntary, attached to bone
2. cardiac - striated (but less so), uninucleated, branched, INTERCALATED disks (for unison motion) 3. smooth - non-striated and involuntary, lines organ wall such as the colon |
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peristaltic movement
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initiated by circular smooth muscles contracting behind the chewed material to prevent it from moving back into the mouth - pushing (expelling) movement
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Two types of cells in nervous tissue
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neurons - cells that conduct electrical impulses
neuroglia cells - supportive and protective cells |
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four signs of tissue inflammation
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redness, swelling, heat, pain
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keloids
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the excess growth of scar tissue at the site of a healed skin injury (children more prone)
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Types of cancer (4)
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carcinoma
sarcoma lymphoma melanoma |
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Carcinoma
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cancer type that affects the epithelial tissue lining an organ
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Sarcoma
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cancer type that affects soft tissue - fat, muscles, nerves, CT (bone)
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Lymphoma
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cancer type that affects lymph nodes, white blood cells (WBC), spleen. Can arise from any organ or site
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Melanoma
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cancer type that involves melanocytes (skin pigment cells)
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