Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
198 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Autocrines |
Chemicals that exert effects on same cells that secrete them; reinforces |
|
|
Paracrines |
locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them ; only affects small groups
|
|
|
Endocrine glands: 1. hormonal or non hormonal? 2. ducts or no? |
1. produce hormones 2. lack ducts --> goes into interstitial fluid |
|
|
Where are the hormones secreted in the endocrine system? |
secreted into interstitial space and diffuse into blood or lymph |
|
|
Where does the pituitary take orders from? |
Hypothalamus (direct access to the blood stream) |
|
|
What are 3 lipid soluble hormones? |
Steroids, amino acids (epinephrine), fatty acids
|
|
|
Name a water-soluble hormone |
proteins (thyroid-stimulating hormone) |
|
|
most hormones are controlled by what? |
negative feedback systems |
|
|
Give an example of a positive feedback system |
child birth |
|
|
what are the 3 types of stimuli that regulate hormones synthesize |
humoral, neural, hormonal |
|
|
What is Neural Stimuli? |
sympathetic nervous system stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines --> *norepinephrine *epinephrine *dopamines |
|
|
What is Humoral Stimuli? |
When a hormone is released in response to a change in the blood levels or other body fluids ex: declining blood Ca2+ levels stimulates PTH secretion |
|
|
What is Hormonal Stimuli? |
Hormonal stimuli refers to the release of a hormone in response to another hormone |
|
|
Down regulation |
decreased synthesis target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels
ex: not noticing hum of projector, waist band of pants |
|
|
Up regulation |
increase of synthesis target cells form more receptors in response to low hormone levels
ex: living in New York, being overly sensitive to noise |
|
|
Water-soluble hormones bind to __________ |
membrane bound receptors proteins w/ receptor site at extracellular surface interact w/ hormones that cannot pass through the plasma membrane. Activate/inhibit enzyme activity
|
|
|
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to ___________ |
Nuclear receptors pass through the plasma membrane. React either w/ enzymes in the cytoplasm or w/ DNA to cause transcription & translation. (turn genes on/off) |
|
|
Which is faster, nervous sys or endocrine? |
Nervous system |
|
|
Which system last longer, nervous or endocrine system? |
Endocrine systerm |
|
|
Define a target cell for the endocrine system |
It has specific receptors |
|
|
Where are the receptors for lipid soluble hormones? What do they affect? |
*inside the cell *gene transcription |
|
|
Where do T-cells mature? |
Thymus |
|
|
Exocrine glands: 1. hormonal or non hormonal? 2. ducts or no? |
1. non hormonal substances (sweat, saliva) 2. have ducts to carry secretion to membrane surfaces |
|
|
what does G protein activate? |
adenylate cyclase |
|
|
adenylate cyclase converts to _______ |
cAMP (cyclic AMP) |
|
|
What enzyme breaks down cAMP? |
phosphodiesterase |
|
|
What does kinase do? |
Puts a phosphate group on something |
|
|
What are the 2 hormones that the posterior pituitary make? |
1. oxytocin 2. ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) |
|
|
What are the 2 classes of hormones that go to the anterior pituitary? |
1. inhibiting 2. releasing |
|
|
How do the hormones get from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary? |
the portal system heart -> artery -> cap. bed -> vein -> cap. bed -> vein -> heart |
|
|
What does lymph do? |
Drains extra interstitial fluid and helps carry hormones |
|
|
Chemistry of Hormones: What are the 2 classes and their function? |
Amino acid-based:
* usually change enzyme activity in target cell. tells them to become more or less active Steroids: * sex hormones & adrenocortical hormones *usually change gene expression in target cell (turn genes on or off) |
|
|
Hypothalamus is what kind of organ? |
Neuroendocrine |
|
|
Are steroids lipid or water soluble? |
lipid soluble |
|
|
Are amino acid-based hormones lipid or water soluble? |
water soluble |
|
|
What are steroids made from? |
They are synthesized from cholesterol |
|
|
What are the amino acid-based derivatives? |
Peptides and proteins |
|
|
what does cortisol control? |
stress levels |
|
|
What is the template we use to make proteins out of amino acids? |
Messenger RNA (not as stable) |
|
|
Where in the body are steroid made? |
The liver |
|
|
Hormones circulate systemically only cells with ___________ for that hormone are affected. What are these cells called? |
receptors Target cells |
|
|
Where are the receptors located for amino acid-based hormones? |
on the cell plasma membrane |
|
|
Where are the receptors located for steroids? |
are in the nucleus and/or cytoplasm |
|
|
What is a tropic hormone? |
hormone that goes from one organ to another and causes more hormones to be made |
|
|
What is apoptosis? (another function of hormones) |
programmed cell death (ex: fingers not being attached & cancer) |
|
|
What is one amino acid-based hormone that is NOT water soluble? |
Thyroid hormone |
|
|
Water-soluble hormones act via what protein? |
G-protein second messengers |
|
|
Can water soluble hormones enter the cell? |
No |
|
|
Can lipid soluble hormones enter the cell? |
Yes |
|
|
What does cAMP activate that phosphorylates proteins? |
Protein kinases |
|
|
Put the 5 steps to cAMP signaling mechanism in order: 1. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP 2. Receptor activate G protein 3. hormone bind to receptor 4. cAMP activates protein kinases that phosphorylate proteins 5. G protein activates adenylate cyclase |
3, 2, 5, 1, 4
|
|
|
cAMP signaling mechanism causes a molecule to have intracellular enzymatic cascades referred to as what? |
amplification effect |
|
|
What plasma membrane receptor needs no second messenger? |
Tyrosine Kinases (ex: insulin) |
|
|
What does Tyrosine Kinase do? |
2 receptors that bind to each other and phosphorylate enzymes |
|
|
What does messenger RNA do? |
directs protein synthesis |
|
|
Put in order: direct gene activation mechanism of lipid-soluble hormones 1. The mRNA directs protein synthesis 2. The receptor-hormone complex enter the nucleus 3. The receptor-hormone complex binds a specific DNA region 4. steroid hormone diffuses through the pasta membrane & binds an intracellular receptor. 5. binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA |
4, 2, 3, 5, 1, |
|
|
ACTH receptors are only found where in the body? |
adrenal cortex |
|
|
Which hormone receptors are found on almost all cells of the body |
Thyroxine (thyroid hormone) |
|
|
Name the 3 things that target cell activation depends on |
1. blood level of hormones 2. number of receptors on or in target cell 3. how tight the bind is between receptor and hormone |
|
|
How are the blood levels controlled? |
negative feedback systems |
|
|
Steroids & thyroid (lipid soluble) hormone must be attached to _________________ to circulate |
plasma proteins |
|
|
Name the 3 ways hormones are removed from the blood |
1. degrading enzymes 2. kidneys 3. liver |
|
|
Where are oxytocin and ADH produced and stored? |
produced in hypothalamus stored in posterior pituitary |
|
|
Hypophyseal portal system: put in order 1. diffuse into anterior pit. & have effect 2. hormones are released from hypothalamus 3. anterior pit. makes hormone & goes into secondary & whole system 4. go through portal vein to secondary cap. bed 5. diffuse into primary cap. bed |
2, 5, 4, 1, 3 |
|
|
What is another name for posterior pituitary |
neurohypophysis |
|
|
What is another name for anterior pituitary? |
adenohypophysis
|
|
|
what kind of tissue is the posterior pituitary? |
neural |
|
|
what kind of tissue if the anterior pituitary? |
glandular |
|
|
Define the hypothalamic hypophyseal tract |
it is the neural connection between the posterior pituitary and hypothalamus |
|
|
Why are posterior pituitary hormones called neural hormones? |
because they are released into the blood |
|
|
what does oxytocin do? |
uterine contractions, trigger for milk ejection, cuddle hormone |
|
|
what does ADH (aka: vasopressin) do? |
water retention |
|
|
What disease will you have if you are ADH deficient? |
Diabetes insipidus |
|
|
What's is called when you have too much ADH? |
Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH) |
|
|
What is the vascular connection between the anterior pit. and the hypothalamus? |
hypophyseal portal system |
|
|
What does the hypophyseal portal system do? |
carries releasing and inhibiting hormones to the anterior pituitary |
|
|
All inhibiting and releasing hormones are what kind? |
Tropic, because they are effecting another hormone |
|
|
Name all 4 tropic hormones (anterior pit) |
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH |
|
|
GH is produced by what kind of cells? |
Somatotropic |
|
|
What does Growth Hormone do? |
actions on metabolism, conserves glucose, |
|
|
What does glycogen do? |
breakdown and glucose release to blood (anti-insulin) |
|
|
What is insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) |
stimulate uptake of nutrients, formation of collagen & deposition of bone matrix |
|
|
What is Ghrelin? |
hunger hormone that stimulates release of GH |
|
|
What is hyper secretion of GH in children? |
gigantism |
|
|
What is hyper secretion of GH in adults? |
acromegaly |
|
|
what is hypo secretion of GH in children? |
pituitary dwarfism |
|
|
What cells produce Thyroid-stimulating hormone? |
Thyrotropic cells |
|
|
Parafollicular cells in thyroid produce what? |
Calcitonin |
|
|
Colloid in the thyroid is actually ________ |
thyroglobulin |
|
|
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is secreted by _______________ cells. |
corticotropic |
|
|
What does ACTH stimulate the adrenal cortex to release? |
corticosteroids |
|
|
FSH & LH are secreted by _________ cells |
gonadotropic |
|
|
FSH stimulates __________ production |
gametes (egg or sperm) |
|
|
LH promotes production of ________ hormones |
gonadal |
|
|
What does Prolactin (PRL) do? |
stimulates milk production |
|
|
What triggers milk production? |
Oxytocin (Prolactin keeps it going) |
|
|
Hyper secretion of PRL causes what problems? |
inappropriate lactation, lack of menses, infertility and impotence in males |
|
|
In the thyroid gland the two lateral lobes are connected by a median mass called _________ |
isthmus |
|
|
what does thyroid hormone do? |
increases metabolic rate and heat production; regulation tissue growth in skeleton & nervous system; maintain bp |
|
|
What is T4? |
(thyroxine) - 2 tyrosine molecules + 4 bound iodine atoms |
|
|
What is T3? |
(triiodothyronine) 2 tyrosine + 3 bound iodine atoms |
|
|
Where are thyroid hormones stored? |
in the follicles extracellularly |
|
|
thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into follicle __________ |
lumen |
|
|
How are T4 & T3 transported? |
thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs) |
|
|
Which is more active, T4 or T3? |
T3 is ten times more active |
|
|
Hypo secretion of TH in adults are called ________? |
Myxedema |
|
|
If you have myxedema due to a lack of iodine, you can form a ________ |
goiter |
|
|
Hypo secretion of TH in infants is called ______ |
cretinism |
|
|
Hyper secretion of TH is called __________ |
Graves' disease |
|
|
Calcitonin is the antagonist to what hormone. |
Parathyroid hormone |
|
|
What does calcitonin do? |
stimulates bone growth (osteoblasts) |
|
|
A blood buffer does what? |
regulates PH |
|
|
Blood is what kind of tissue? |
Connective |
|
|
Which plasma protein is most abundant? |
Albumin |
|
|
What is the function of plasma protein? |
regulation of osmotic pressure |
|
|
The plasma component that forms fibrin, the insoluble protein, in a blood clot is _________ |
Fibrinogen |
|
|
Hemocytoblast stem cells to what.... |
give rise to all formed elements in the blood. |
|
|
Mature erythrocytes contain ________ in their cytoplasm |
hemoglobin - for gas/oxygen transport |
|
|
each hemoglobin molecule transports ______ |
4 oxygen molecules |
|
|
________ is needed to produce hemoglobin |
Iron |
|
|
what is an immature red blood cell called? |
reticulocyte |
|
|
Erythropoietin is a product of __________ |
the kidneys |
|
|
What diseases causes bones to soften, formation of kidney stones, and elevation of Ca2+ that depresses nervous system? |
Hyperparathyroidism |
|
|
What disease results in tetany (muscle cramps), respiratory paralysis and death? |
hypoparathyroidism |
|
|
What is the adrenal medulla? |
nervous tissue; part of sympathetic nervous system |
|
|
What is the adrenal cortex? |
3 layers of granular tissue that synthesize and secrete corticosteroids |
|
|
What are mineralocorticoids? |
regulate electrolytes (Na+ & K+); affects extracellular fluid (blood volume, bp); resting membrane potential; aldosterone |
|
|
what does aldosterone do? |
mineralocorticoid that stimulates Na+ reabsorption & water retention; eliminates K+ (water follows salt) |
|
|
What is aldosterone release triggered by? |
decreasing blood volume and drop in bp; rising blood K+ levels |
|
|
What is aldosteronism? |
hyper secretion due to tumor; edema, hypertension |
|
|
What are glucocorticoids? |
keep blood glucose levels constant; maintains bp by vasoconstrictions |
|
|
What is gluconeogensis? |
making new sugar |
|
|
What is a hyper secretion of cortisol? |
Cushing's disease *depresses bone formation, immune system & disrupts cardiovascular, neural & gastrointestinal function |
|
|
What is hypo secretion of cortisol? |
Addison's disease *decrease in glucose & Na+ levels; weight loss, severe dehydration and hypotension |
|
|
What are gonadocorticoids? |
onset of puberty, secondary sex characteristics, sex drive in women, estrogens, androgens |
|
|
What is hyper secretion of gonadocorticoids called? |
adrenogenital syndrome *boys-secondary sex char. emerge early *girls-beard, body hair, clit resembles penis |
|
|
What do (adrenal) medullary chromatin cells synthesize? |
epinephrine and norepinephrine |
|
|
What does epinephrine do? |
stimulates metabolic activities, bronchial dilations, blood flow to muscles & heart |
|
|
What does norepinephrine do? |
peripheral vasoconstriction and bp |
|
|
What is hyper secretion of the adrenal medulla? |
hyperglycemia |
|
|
Pineal gland: Pinealocytes secrete ______, derived from serotonin |
melatonin |
|
|
What are acinar cells? |
in pancreas; produce enzyme-rich juice for digestion |
|
|
Pancreas: what do alpha and beta cells produce? |
alpha - glucagon beta - insulin |
|
|
what is the major target for glucagon? |
liver |
|
|
what is glycogenolysis? |
breakdown of glycogen to glucose |
|
|
what is gluconeogensis? |
synthesis of glucose from lactic acid & noncarbs; stimulates breakdown of fats |
|
|
What does insulin do? |
lowers blood glucose levels |
|
|
What activates tyrosine kinases enzyme receptor? |
insulin |
|
|
Where are the alpha and beta cells located? |
in the Islets of Langerhaun |
|
|
What is somatostatin? |
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone |
|
|
What is diabetes mellitus? |
type 1 - hypo secretion type 2 - hypo activity *blood glucose remains high |
|
|
what is leptin? |
appetite control; stimulates increased energy expenditure |
|
|
What decreases blood Na+ concentration, therefore bp and blood volume? |
(ANP) atrial natriuretic peptide |
|
|
What is erythropoietin? |
in the kidneys; signals production of red blood cells |
|
|
what initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism? |
renin |
|
|
What is cholecalciferol? |
precursor of vitamin D |
|
|
what is osteocalcin? |
prods pancreas to secrete more insulin |
|
|
What are platelets? |
cell fragments |
|
|
What makes up the buffy coat? |
WBCs and platelets |
|
|
What is the percentage of buffycoat? |
<1% |
|
|
what percentage of plasma do we have? |
55% |
|
|
What percentage of erythrocytes do we have? |
45% |
|
|
What is the normal blood volume for men and women? |
men = 47% (5-6 L) women = 42% (4-5 L) |
|
|
what are normal pH levels? |
7.35-7.45 |
|
|
What is the function of blood? |
transportation of oxygen, nutrients, wastes, CO2 & hormones defense regulatory functions; homeostasis |
|
|
What 2 things initiate clot formation? |
plasma proteins and platelets |
|
|
What organ produces plasma proteins? |
liver |
|
|
What helps with clotting factor? |
fibrinogen |
|
|
The ability of white blood cells to leave the circulation and enter tissues is called |
diapedesis |
|
|
What is chemotaxis |
WBC moving toward imflammation |
|
|
Name the granulocytes |
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils |
|
|
name the agranulocytes |
monocytes, lymphocytes |
|
|
Which WBC type can become macrophages? |
monocytes |
|
|
Which WBC goes after parasitic infections and has a role in allergies and asthma? |
Eosinophils |
|
|
Which WBC are known to be "bacteria slayers" |
Neutrophils |
|
|
Which WBC contains histamine? |
Basophils |
|
|
Where are lymphocytes mostly located and function? |
in the lymph nodes & spleen; immunity |
|
|
What are the 2 types of lymphocytes? |
T & B lymphocytes |
|
|
What do T lymphocytes do? |
mature in thymus; act against tumor and virus infected cells |
|
|
What do B lymphocytes do? |
give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies |
|
|
what are the largest leukocytes and leave circulation to enter tissues and turn into macrophages? |
monocytes |
|
|
What are mature WBCs called? |
interleukins |
|
|
Where do all leukocytes originate from? |
hemocytoblasts |
|
|
Which white blood cells function primarily as phagocytotic cells? |
monocytes and neutrophils |
|
|
What are the 3 stages to hemostasis? |
1. vascular spasm 2. platelet plug formation 3. coagulation (blood clotting) |
|
|
What protein forms a bridge between exposed vessel wall collagen and platelet surface receptors? |
Von Willebrand factor |
|
|
What ion is necessary for the coagulation process? |
Calcium |
|
|
Which pathway for coagulation is shorter, extrinsic or intrinsic? |
extrinsic |
|
|
A blood clot attached to a blood vessel wall is called a(an) |
thrombus |
|
|
When the antigens on erythrocytes bind with antibodies in the plasma, what occurs? |
agglutination |
|
|
what is hematocrit? |
the percentage of RBCs in a given volume of blood (35-50%) |
|
|
What are cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryoctyes? |
platelets |
|
|
What is a thrombus freely floating in bloodstream? |
Embolus |
|
|
What is an embolus obstructing a vessel? |
embolism |
|
|
What is an anticoagulant used clinically for pre & postoperative cardiac care? |
Heparin |
|
|
What is the rat poison that is an anticoagulant drug? |
Warfarin (Coumadin) |
|
|
What is the deficiency of number of circulating platelets? |
thrombocytopenia |
|
|
What happens in hemolytic disease of the newborn? |
occurs when Rh- mom has Rh+ fetus |
