Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
92 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Anthropology
|
study of people, civilizations, and their cultures
the study of man/humans the science of human cultural and biological variation and evolution |
|
|
Culture
|
behavior that is shared, learned, and socially transmitted (not instinctual behavior). Includes social and economic systems, marriage and funeral customs, religion, philosophy, etc.
|
|
|
Variation
|
differences among individuals or populations
|
|
|
Biocultural approach
|
studying humans in terms of the interaction between biology and culture in evolutionary adaption (ie. population growth determined by: disease, nutrition, cultural traditions/values- how to choose mating partners, gender equality) (nutrition determined by: availability of food, beliefs/taboos about certain foods)
|
|
|
Holistic approach
|
integrating all aspects of existence in understanding human variation and evolution
|
|
|
Comparative approach
|
study similarities and difference between human populations, or between humans and other organisms, to determine common vs. unique behaviors or biological traits (ie. studying/comparing limb structures of man, dog, whale, bird... ulna in all four! = comparison of biological traits)
|
|
|
Evolution
|
change in populations of organisms from one generation to the next. Can refer to changes in BOTH culture and biology. Anthropologists are interested in both cultural and biological evolution and in questions of when, how, why, where, who.
|
|
|
Adaptation
|
advantageous changes, OR the process of successful interaction between a population and an environment
|
|
|
Paleoanthropology
|
study of fossil remains of human ancestors (ie. Lucy!)
|
|
|
Primatology
|
study of humans and their closest living relatives including apes, monkeys, lemurs, and lorises (ie. Jane Goodall's work with chimpanzees)
|
|
|
Genetic/Molecular Anthropology
|
the use of molecular genetic and molecular biological techniques to address anthropological questions
for example: questions about human/primate evolution, migrations, demography, paleodemography (population structures of past), gene flow, mating patterns, etc. |
|
|
Biomedical Anthropology
|
biomedical, biobehavioral, epidemiological, and evolutionary approaches to understanding health and disease
|
|
|
Demography
|
study of characteristics of human populations such as size, growth, density, distribution, and vital statistics (ie. how many people are born/die within a year?)
|
|
|
Human Osteology
|
study of human skeleton. Applications include: biomechanics, bioarchaeology, paleopathology, forensic anthropology
|
|
|
Biological evolution
|
change in the genetic makeup of populations over time
|
|
|
Evolution
|
change in populations of organisms from one generation to the next
|
|
|
3 types of evolutionary changes
|
o Genetic = change in allele frequencies over time
o Phenotypic = change in external features (appearance) over time o Behavioral = change in behavior over time (aka cultural evolution) |
|
|
Taxonomy
|
science of classifying living things
|
|
|
Carolus Linnaeus
|
Swedish botanist
o System Naturae = catalog of living organisms designed to reflect divine plan of life o binomial classification = genus species = Homo sapiens (humans) |
|
|
Erasmus Darwin
|
grandfather of Charles Darwin, physician and natural philosopher
Zoonomia: "would it be too bold to imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament..." o descent from common ancestor o change is driven by external factors ("irritations, sensations, volitions and associations") o adaptation, mutation o suggests that earth is much older (time depth) o lacking: HOW are these changes made? o (these ideas existed, Charles Darwin simply provided a MECHANISM, a HOW) |
|
|
Werner and Smith's principle of superimposition
|
idea that rocks are laid down in strata in a sequence of time - distinct layers which follow a set sequence in time. fossils provide a record of life stretching back in time.
|
|
|
Cuvier's Catastrophism
|
school of thought which saw geological changes as records of immense cataclysms (massive volcano eruptions, major floods, etc) thus Biblical view maintained. Changes in fossil record due to species moving into areas after a catastrophe.
|
|
|
Hutton's Uniformitarianism
|
observation that the geologic processes that operate in the world today also operated the same way in the past
|
|
|
Lamarck
|
o Philosophie Zoologique: simple forms of life are constantly being generated from inaminate matter and gradually evolve to become more complex along predetermined path of "chain." no extinctions have occurred- fossils species have been transformed. organisms have a natural tendency to progress. body parts used more will have a build up of "nervous fluid" which would increase their size (ie. giraffe eating from top of trees). acquired modifications could be passed to offspring.
o idea of constant improvement! (which Charles Darwin rejected!) o until Darwin published the theory of evolution by natural selection, Lamarck's theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics was the only detailed account of how changes might occur across generations |
|
|
Charles Darwin
|
Adaptive radiation (p. 96) = the formation of many new species following the availability of new environments or the development of a new adaptation
Galapagos Islands, Finches evolution by Natural Selection, Survival of the Fittest |
|
|
Alfred Russel Wallace
|
British naturalist and explorer
in 1858, sent Darwin a letter from Southeast Asia asking Darwin to review a manuscript he wanted to have published. Darwin realized the manuscript, titled On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Infinitely from the Original Type, proposed ideas identical to his own (Wallace has independently co-discovered theory of natural selection!) |
|
|
theory of evolution by natural selection
|
All species, living and extinct, have descended, without interruption from one or a few original forms of life. No divine creation, no spontaneous generation.
o Closely related species have diverged from a relatively recent common ancestor by the accumulation of slight difference. o More dissimilar groups have arisen from a more ancient common ancestor and have accumulated more differences over time. • Useful variations (those that confer some advantage in the struggle for existence) will be passed on in greater numbers to the next generation. Thus, a species is altered because the individuals in any generation are descended from, and have inherited the properties of only SOME of the individuals from the preceding generation o Struggle is used as a filter for survival, passing traits along! |
|
|
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
|
All species, living and extinct, have descended, without interruption from one or a few original forms of life. No divine creation, no spontaneous generation.
o Closely related species have diverged from a relatively recent common ancestor by the accumulation of slight difference. o More dissimilar groups have arisen from a more ancient common ancestor and have accumulated more differences over time. Useful variations (those that confer some advantage in the struggle for existence) will be passed on in greater numbers to the next generation. Thus, a species is altered because the individuals in any generation are descended from, and have inherited the properties of only SOME of the individuals from the preceding generation o Struggle is used as a filter for survival, passing traits along! |
|
|
Gradualism
|
differences between organisms reflect build-up of small changes over time through intermediate forms
|
|
|
Population speciation
|
evolution occurs by changes in the proportions of individuals within a population that differ in one or more hereditary characteristics... variation exists within species!
genetic changes occur, when a lineage split into two species |
|
|
Natural selection
|
a mechanism for evolutionary change favoring the survival and reproduction of some organisms over others because of their biological characteristics... Nature/the environment could select those individuals that survived and reproduced!
|
|
|
Eukaryotes
|
cells that have membrane-bound cellular organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc)
|
|
|
Prokaryotes
|
(i.e. bacteria) cells that do NOT have internal compartments like organelles
|
|
|
chromosomes
|
strands of condensed, coiled DNA wrapped around proteins called histones
|
|
|
Human chromosomes
|
46 chromosomes
23 pairs 22 pairs of AUTOSOMES (not sex chromosomes!) 1 pair of SEX CHROMOSOMES (X and Y) XX = female XY = male |
|
|
Trisomy
|
presence of 3 copies of a chromosome in a cell
o Down's Syndrome is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21 and involved mental retardation and physiological changes |
|
|
Monosomy
|
presence of only one copy of a chromosome
o Turner's Syndrome is caused by monosomy of the X chromosome and involves shortened stature, possible sterility and other physiological changes |
|
|
Haploid vs. Diploid
|
• Egg and sperm cells contain only one copy of each autosome (22 total) and only one sex chromosome (total = 23 chromosomes in sperm or egg cells)
• Get one HAPLOID (N) set of chromosomes from each parent to make a DIPLOID (2N) zygote • During fertilization, the two haploid genomes are merged into one diploid ZYGOTE (fertilized egg cell) Getting a copy of chromosomes from each parent increases variation! |
|
|
genome
|
a complete compliment of genetic material from an individual (a blueprint basically)
|
|
|
DNA
|
• the molecule that provides the genetic code for biological structures AND the means to translate this code
• aka... the set of instructions for determining the makeup of biological organisms including their development, operation, and repair • evolution involves the transfer of information, in the form of DNA, from one generation to the next with the possibility of change • DNA is a double helix, a twisted ladder • the "rungs" of this ladder are composed of chemical units - nitrogenous bases • 4 bases: Adenine (A): purine, Thymine (T): pyrimidine, Guanine (G): purine, Cytosine (C): pyrimidine • Each "rung" of the ladder consists of a purine paired with a pyrimidine: A - T, G - C • "Rails" of the ladder consist of linked phosphates and sugars |
|
|
Codon
|
sequence of 3 bases which code for an amino acid
|
|
|
Gene
|
unit of DNA that produces a series of amino acids called a polypeptide (i.e. a protein)
|
|
|
ribosomes
|
are responsible for making proteins, and are located outside the nucleus, in the cell's CYTOPLASM
|
|
|
Protein Synthesis: Step 1
|
transcription
• DNA helix unzips to separate into 2 strands - one of which is active, the other inactive • the exposed base pairs on the active strand attract free-floating bases to form a strand of mRNA (messenger RNA) • RNA = ribonucleic acid, single-stranded molecule, uracil (U) substitutes for thymine (T) • mRNA leaves nucleus and travels through cytoplasm, heads to the ribosomes |
|
|
Protein Synthesis: Step 2
|
translation
• As ribosomes move along the strand of mRNA, each codon attracts a complementary transfer RNA (tRNA) sequence which carries the specified amino acid • Each tRNA molecule transfers its amino acid to the next active tRNA resulting in a chain of amino acids. Process proceeds until a stop codon is reached and protein is formed. |
|
|
regulatory genes
|
regulate biological processes like sexual maturation, growth, etc.
these act by turning other genes on or off at appropriate times • Evolutionary significance: may explain differences between closely related species like humans and chimpanzees • Humans and chimps share 98% of structural genes • Genetic difference may be in regulatory genes explaining why humans and chimps differ in timing of growth and development, brain size, etc. |
|
|
Species
Genus |
Species (p. 14) = group of populations whose members can interbreed naturally and produce fertile offspring
Genus (p. 14) = groups of species with similar adaptations |
|
|
Anagenesis
|
evolutionary process during which a single species is transformed
|
|
|
Speciation
|
genetic changes occur, when a lineage split into two species
|
|
|
Principle of divergence
|
splitting-and-specializing phenomenon in which genetic changes make a species so irreversibly distinct that its members can't interbreed with the rest, so two species now exist where formerly there was just one
|
|
|
Microevolution
Macroevolution |
Microevolution (p. 31) = short-term evolutionary change
Macroevolution (p. 31) = long-term evolutionary change |
|
|
Exon
Intron |
Exon (p. 37) = section of DNA that codes for the amino acids that make up proteins. It is contrasted with an intron
Intron (p. 37) = section of DNA that does not code for the amino acids that make up proteins. It is contrasted with an exon. |
|
|
Mitosis
Meiosis |
Mitosis (p. 38) = process of replication of chromosomes in body cells
Meiosis (p. 38) = creation of sex cells by replication of chromosomes followed by cell division |
|
|
Locus
Allele |
Locus (p. 41) = the specific location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome
Allele = alternative form of a gene or DNA sequence that occurs at a given locus. Some loci have only one allele, some have two, and some have many alternative forms. Alleles occur in pairs, one on each chromosome. |
|
|
Mendel's Law of Segregation
|
states that sex cells contain one of each pair of alleles
|
|
|
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
|
states that the segregation of any pair of chromosomes does not affect the probability of segregation for other pairs of chromosomes
|
|
|
Monogenic
Polygenic Pleiotropy |
Monogenic = single gene has single effect, single phenotypic trait (aka ability to roll your tongue)
Polygenic (p. 50) = complex genetic trait affected by 2+ loci aka many genes contribute to a single effect Pleiotropy (p. 50) = single allele that has multiple effects on an organism aka one gene has multiple effects |
|
|
total variation = ?
|
= genetic variation + environmental variation
|
|
|
heritability = ?
|
proportion of total variation of a trait due to genetic variation
= (genetic variation) / (total variation) = (genetic variation) / (genetic variation + environmental variation) |
|
|
Monogenic
|
trait is determined by a single locus (gene)
|
|
|
Mutation
|
a change in the genetic code. Mutations are the ultimate source of ALL genetic variation.
Can occur in any cell of the body, but must occur in a sex cell to be of evolutionary importance Types of mutation: • Substitution = one DNA base is changed for another • Addition = the addition of a single base or larger section of DNA • Deletion = the loss of a single base or larger section DNA |
|
|
Breeding Population
|
a group of organisms that tend to choose mates from within the group
|
|
|
Census population
|
actual total population
|
|
|
Effective population
|
Effective population size = similar to breeding population, but is always smaller than the census or breeding population size...
those who actually mate and contribute to the next generation! |
|
|
Genotype frequency
|
the relative proportion of different genotypes within a population
= (the number of individuals with each genotype) divided by (the total number of individuals in the population) |
|
|
Allele frequency
|
the relative proportion of alleles within a population
= (the number of each allele) divided by (the total number of alleles) |
|
|
brachydactyly
|
abnormally short fingers due to a dominant allele
|
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg Equlibrium = given certain assumptions, genotype and allele frequencies will remain constant from one generation to the next
assumes: - random mating - no mutation - no natural selection - no gene flow - no genetic drift |
• shows there is no inherent tendency for a dominant allele to become more frequent and a recessive allele to become less frequent
• alleles A and a • at frequencies of A = p and a = q • for next generation: o frequency of genotype AA = p2 o frequency of genotype Aa = 2pq o frequency of genotype aa = q2 • note: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 |
|
|
mutation
|
source of all new genetic variation. usually mutation rates are low and often do not, by themselves, lead to major changes in allele frequencies
• the original, common, or "normal" version of a gene is called the "wild type" allele • the new version of the gene (or the abnormal version) is called the mutant allele • in reality, it can be hard to tell whether an allele is the "wild type" or mutant |
|
|
Tay Sach's Disease
selection again homozygote recessive allele |
o appear normal at birth
o 6-8 months: individuals begin to lose ability to sit upright unassisted, muscle control declines o 8-14 months: eyes increasingly wander because onset of blindness; stop reacting to social stimuli o 14-20 months: become completely blind and paralyzed; often begin having seizures o 40 months: death o caused by recessive allele, heterozygotes show no major biological impairment o recessive alleles result in lack of enzyme needed to break down lipids. without enzyme lipids accumulate in the brain, impairing neural functioning |
|
|
achondroplastic dwarfism
selection for homozygotes recessive: dominant allele is selected against |
small body size and abnormal body proportions. dominant allele in human populations, found at low frequencies = ~0.00005
o most achondroplastic dwarfs are heterozygotes, homozygote dominants typically do not survive o therefore, homozygote dominants are selected against o heterozygotes may show lowered fitness due to assortative mating o homozygote recessives (non-dwarfs) are selected for |
|
|
balancing selection
|
eventually a balance is reached between selection for and against the 2 alleles such that allele frequencies will no longer change (in a stable environment). exact value of the balancing point will depend on the fitness values
|
|
|
stabilizing selection
|
when selection is against both extremes of a trait's range in values. individuals with values closer to the average for the trait are more likely to survive and reproduce. result is to maintain the population at the same average value over time.
|
|
|
directional selection
|
selection is against one extreme of a trait's range of values. result is a change over time in the average value of a trait.
|
|
|
diversifying selection
|
selection against the average values of a trait's range and for the extremes (much less common than stabilizing/directional selection)
|
|
|
Balancing selection
|
selection for the heterozygote and against the homozygotes (the heterozygote is most fit)
|
|
|
Founder effect
|
a type of genetic drift caused by the formation of a new population by a small number of individuals
|
|
|
Genetic drift
|
a mechanism for evolutionary change resulting from the random fluctuations of gene frequencies from one generation to the next
|
|
|
Gene flow
|
a mechanism for evolutionary change resulting from the movement of genes from one population to another
|
|
|
Biological species concept
|
definition of a species that focuses on reproductive capabilities, whereby organisms from different populations are considered to be the same species if they naturally interbreed AND produce fertile offspring
|
|
|
anagenesis
|
straight-line evolution, the transformation of a single species over time
|
|
|
cladogenesis
|
branching evolution, the formation of 1+ species from another over time. original species can co-exist with new species.
|
|
|
chronospecies
|
labels given to different points in the evolutionary lineage of a single species over time. labels usually applied to different physical forms along the evolutionary line
|
|
|
Forms of Isolation
|
Geographic isolation = populations are separated by a physical barrier such as a river, mountain range, or just a great enough distance to impede gene flow
Behavioral isolation = does not require geographic separation. populations isolated by behavioral difference such as feeding times or prey preferences |
|
|
Punctuated equilibrium
|
the pattern of macroevolution consists of long periods of little evolutionary change (stasis) followed by short periods of rapid evolutionary change. in this model, speciation is a punctuation event that occurs within small, isolated populations on the periphery of a species range.
|
|
|
Linnaean system of classification
|
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
(King Philip Came Over From German Soil) |
|
|
primitive homologous trait
|
trait inherited from an earlier form, unmodified from the ancestral state
|
|
|
derived homologous trait
|
trait that has been modified from the ancestral state (example: horse hooves is derived trait... has not maintained primitive trait of 5 digits)
|
|
|
Homoplasy = similarity of trait due to independent evolution, also sometimes called analogy
2 types of homoplasy?? |
o parallel evolution = independent evolution of traits in closely related species (i.e. increase in dental size among early human ancestors)
o convergent evolution = independent evolution of traits in more distantly related species (i.e. evolution of flight in both bats and flies) |
|
|
Homology
|
similarity due to descent from a common ancestor
|
|
|
Cladistics
|
a school of thought that stresses evolutionary relationships between organisms based on shared derived traits
|
|
|
Outgroup
|
a group used for comparison in cladistic analyses to determine whether the ancestral state of a trait is primitive or derived
|
