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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define energy. |
The ability to do work |
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What do biological processes do in terms of energy? |
Transfer between different energy forms |
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What is a metabolic pathway? |
A series of chemical reactions yielding a final product |
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What is the induced fit model of enzyme interaction? |
Enzyme and substrate interaction cause a mild shift in enzyme's structure that forms an ideal bond between substrate and enzyme |
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What does the enzyme substrate complex do? |
Lowers activation energy by optimizing orientation or environment for reaction or compromising the bond |
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What do suspension feeders eat? |
Debris, phytoplankton, zooplankton |
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How do larger animals feed? |
Chase prey, suction feed, and ram feed |
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What is a small Reynolds number? |
Fluid flow dominated by viscosity (flow is laminar and boundary layer is thick), stationary animals |
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What is a large Reynolds number? |
Fluid flow influenced by inertial forces (flow is turbulent and boundary layer is thin), anything that swims in water |
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What is the digestive structure of Cnidarians? |
One opening, mouth leading into gastrovascular cavity |
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What is the digestive structure of roundworms? |
Two openings, mouth and anus, pharynx and intestine |
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What is the digestive structure of reptiles and birds? |
- mouth and cloaca - esophagus, crop, gizzard, small and large intestine, ceaca |
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What is the digestive structure of mammals? |
- mouth and anus - esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, cecum - additional divisions of the stomach in ruminants |
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Describe the evolution of digestion. |
- single opening into digestive structure - two openings (one into and one out of) digestive structures - increased number of specialized structures - temporary storing structures within digestive system |
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What parts of digestion occur in the mouth? |
Chewing and swallowing, chemical digestion of carbohydrates |
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What parts of digestion occur in the stomach? |
Mixing, chemical digestion of proteins |
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What parts of digestion occur in the small intestine? |
Mixing, segmentation, chemical digestion and absorption |
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What parts of digestion occur in the large intestine? |
Mixing, segmentation, mass movement, bacterial chemical digestion, absorption |
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What enzymes are active in the small intestine? |
Maltase, sucrase, lactase |
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What enzyme is active in the stomach and small intestine? |
Lipase |
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What does bile from the liver do? |
Emulsification into micelles |
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What is special about digestion in hummingbirds? |
They can fly on "empty" and feed along the way, meaning they do not rely on fuel reserves |
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What is skeletal muscle? |
Controls locomotion and any movement that can be consciously controlled |
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What is smooth muscle? |
Controls the walls of hollow organs and passages/vessels; no striations unlike skeletal muscle |
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What is cardiac muscle? |
In the heart for pumping blood throughout the body and maintaining blood pressure |
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What is a class 3 lever? |
Force and load on the same side of the fulcrum |
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What is a class 2 lever? |
Same side but load closer to fulcrum |
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What is a class 1 lever? |
Force and load on opposite side of fulcrum |
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What are types of locomotion? |
Burrowing/creeping, swimming, walking/running, flying |
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What about bird bones makes them more suited for flight? |
Thinner walls with numerous internal struts |
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What is flapping powered by? |
Supracoracoideus and pectoralis major |
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What are flight feathers like? |
Pennaceous, asymmetrical, barbs hook together to create a stiff surface |
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What is aerofoil? |
Flight control by twisting or folding of the wing to reduce resistance in flight |
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What is primary active lift? |
Involves actively moving the ends of the wings |
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What is secondary passive lift? |
Involves more of a gliding motion |
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What flight characteristics do bird have? |
- air flow ventilation - air sac system - posterior facing pubis - 5 or more vertebrae make up the sacrum - flexible wrists - furcula - hinge-like ankle bone - expanded pneumatic sinuses |
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What are arm proportions of a hoverer? |
Large scapula, smaller forearm, larger hand |
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What are arm proportions of a flier? |
Medium scapula, medium forearm, medium hand |
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What are arm proportions of a soarer? |
Smaller scapula, larger forearm, smaller hand |
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What is aspect ratio? |
Span^2/wing area |
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What does a higher aspect ratio mean? |
High efficiency |
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What is wing load? |
Body mass/wing area |
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What does high wing load mean? |
High average speed but low maneuverability |
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What is weight in flight? |
Downward pull |
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What is lift in flight? |
Staying aloft |
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What is drag in flight? |
Backwards push |
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What is thrust in flight? |
Forward push, resistance |
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What is the evolution of locomotion? |
- burrowing/creeping - sessile - swimming - walking/running - bipedal walking/running/flight/secondary aquatic |
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What is muscle structure from largest to smallest? |
Muscle, muscle fiber, myofibril, sarcolemma, sarcoplasm |
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What is the Z line? |
Boundary of thin filaments |
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What is the M line? |
Centre of thick filaments |
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What is the A band? |
Length of thick filaments |
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What is the I band? |
Length of space between thin and thick filaments |
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What are the steps of signal arrival at the muscle? |
- action potential arrives at the synaptic cleft - acetylcholine released, initiates signal that travels through sarcolemma - signal releases calcium stored in the SR into the sarcoplasm - calcium binds to troponin - signal stops when acetylcholinesterase removes acetylcholine - calcium travels back to SR and contraction stops |
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What are the steps to cross-bridge formation? |
- calcium binds to troponin - tropomyosin configuration changes, active site on actin exposed, myosin attaches - myosin head releases ADP to generate the power stroke - when new ATP is available and attached to myosin, myosin head releases from actin - when ATP is hydrolyzed, myosin is ready to attach to actin again |
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What are neurons? |
- communicate with 10000 other cells on average - have specialized structures - conduct onset of signals in dendrites - conduct signals via action potentials - communicate with cells via synapses |
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What are the types of neurons? |
- unipolar - bipolar - multipolar - pseudounipolar |
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What is resting membrane potential established by? |
Leaky channels and the Na-K pump |
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What is a graded potential? |
A small local depolarization |
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What happens if a graded potential reaches the axon? |
If the neuron reaches threshold potential an action potential occurs |
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Define repolarization. |
Membrane becomes more negative |
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Define hyperpolarization. |
Membrane becomes more negative than resting potential. |
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Define depolarization. |
Membrane becomes more positive |
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What happens in an action potential? |
- depolarization occurs, sodium rushes into cells to +30 mV - repolarization occurs, potassium leaves cells to +90 mV - resting potential reestablished |
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How do action potentials propagate? |
Depolarization spreads to next axon segment and causes it to depolarize |
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What is myelin? |
Coats axons and allows signals to travel faster |
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What is the evolution of neuronal signals? |
- voltage-gated channels and action potential - rapid transduction (myelination) |
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What happens in a chemical synapse? |
Action potential reaches synaptic terminal, neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft, where it attaches to receptor on postsynaptic cell for further signal transduction |
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What are ependymal cells? |
Line fluid filled cavities and circulate cerebrospinal fluid |
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What are astrocytes? |
Transport nutrients, regulate contents of extracellular fluid, guide development, regulate synapses |
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What are oligodendrocytes? |
Form myelin sheath in CNS |
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What are microglia? |
Remove debris and dead cells |
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What are Schwann cells? |
Form myelin sheath in PNS |
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What are satellite cells? |
Regulate contents and remove debris in PNS |
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What is the CNS? |
Brain and spinal cord |
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What provides connections between CNS and PNS? |
Neuron bundles |
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What do afferent branches do? |
Send internal and external stimuli to CNS |
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What do efferent branches do? |
Send signals to the PNS (autonomic or somatic) |
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What is the ANS? |
Between CNS and internal organs |
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What is the sympathetic nervous system? |
Fight or flight, involves acetylcholine and norepinephrine |
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What is the parasympathetic nervous system? |
Rest and digest, involves acetylcholine and/or nitric oxide |
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What are cranial nerves? |
Somatic nerves from base of brain |
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What are spinal nerves? |
Sensory or autonomic nerves from spinal cord |
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What is the nervous system in Cnidarians? |
Neuron synapses |
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What is the nervous system in Echinoderms? |
Radial arrangement of nerves |
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What is the nervous system in Planarians? |
Central ganglia and nerve cords |
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What is the nervous system in Arthropods? |
Central and segmental ganglia |
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What is the nervous system in Mollusks? |
Brain and ganglia |
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What is the nervous system in Vertebrates? |
Brain, spinal cord, and ganglia |
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What are the lobes of the brain? |
Frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital |
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What does the amygdala do? |
Emotions, memory |
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What are the cerebellum and brainstem for? |
Sensory integration, homeostatic regulation, locomotion, balance, breathing, heart function |
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What is the evolution of neuronal signal? (Synapses...) |
- synapses - centralization of synapses - central nervous system - brain - increased cortical surface area |
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How does olfactory signal work? |
Odorants bind to odorant receptor neurons (bipolar) in olfactory epithelium of nasal cavity, which transmits information to olfactory bulb |
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What is the gustatory system in mammals? |
- taste buds of terrestrial vertebrates on tongue, soft palate, larynx, and esophagus - taste buds of aquatic vertebrates can be on external surfaces of body |
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What exists on the outer ear? |
Pinna and auditory canal |
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What exists in the middle ear? |
Tympanum, malleus, incus, stapes, and eustachian tube |
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What exists in the inner ear? |
Semicircular canals, cochlea |
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What are the steps to hearing? |
- pressure changes at depolarization signal stereocilia to pivot and mechanically gated channels open to allow calcium to enter the hair cell, neurotransmitter release and frequency of action potential increases - at hyperpolarization channels close |
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What is the vestibular system in mammals? |
- hair cells in semicircular canals sensitive to positional changes |
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What has the equivalent function to vestibular hair cells in invertebrates? |
Statocysts |
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What are rod cells? |
Receptors sensitive to dim light |
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What are cone cells? |
Receptors sensitive to brighter light |
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What are the steps to vision? |
- light reaches rhodopsin in the rod, phosphodiesterase removes cGMP from sodium channels, closing it - neuron associated with rod cell hyperpolarized |
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What is the evolution of sensory structures? |
- balance/position/statocysts - rods and olfaction - cones and hair cells |
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What do sensory whiskers in mole rats do? |
Sense vibrations |
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How does echolocation in bats work? |
- buzz: faster vocalization by superfast muscles - buzz II: broaden acoustic field and reduce chance of insect escape |
