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110 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Identify the organs forming the respiratory passageways in descending order until you reach the alveoli |
Nose -> Pharynx -> Larynx -> Trachea -> Primary Bronchi (L/R) -> Secondary bronchi -> Tertiary Bronchi -> Terminal Bronchioles -> Respiratory bronchiole -> Alveolar duct -> alveolar Sac -> Alveoli
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Distinguish between conducting and respiratory zone structures |
Conducting zone - respiratory passageways that provide a conduit for air to reach a site of gas exchange. cleanse, humidify, and warm incoming air
Respiratory zone - actual site of gas exchange |
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Describe the makeup of the respiratory membrane and relate structure to function |
Single layer of squamous epithelium Type I cells with basal lamina - Thin layer that is needed for exchange Cuboidal Type II - secrete surfactant, removes surface tension, thus preventing collapsing of alveoli |
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Describe the gross structure of the lungs and pleurae |
Lungs are cone-shaped and are surrounded by pleura. Visceral pleura touch the actual lungs and parietal pleura cover the rest. Between the two layers is fluid
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Describe the three steps to respiration |
Pulmonary ventilation: inflow and outflow of air between the atmosphere and lungs
External Respiration: blood in lungs gains O2 and loses CO2 Internal Respiration: Blood in systemic capillaries lose O2 and gain CO2 and tissue cells gain O2 and lose CO2 |
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Relate Boyle's law to the events of inspiration and expiration |
Boyle's law: most of the volume of a gas is empty space. Volume is inversely related to pressure. Inspiration is active process of boyle's because muscles contract and increases lung volume and pressure decreases. In expiration is passive and muscles relax and lung volume decreases and pressure increases.
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Explain the relative roles of the respiratory muscles, lung elasticity in producing the volume changes, and the effects on collisions of air particles and pressure changes that cause air to flow in and out of the lungs |
Diaphragm: activated during inspiration. External intercostals: contract during inspiration. Inhalation: pressure in the lungs must be less than the atmospheric pressure, the volume of lungs increase and lower lung pressure. Exhalation: lung pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, volume deccreases and pressure increases
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Explain why it feels harder to breathe at higher altitudes |
pressure gradient change. Less pressure so the O2 molecules are more spread out, meaning less is inhaled |
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Understand the forces that promote lung collapse |
Lung collapse is caused by the equalization of the intrapleural pressure with the intrapulmonary pressure.
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Describe the role of surfectants and elastic fibers. Identify the cells that secrete surfectant |
Surfactant: secreted by type II alveolar cells which lower the surface tension of liquids moving around another liquid or solid substance
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Explain the reason for pulmonary issues in premature babies |
Fetal lungs do not produce aqeduate amounts of surfactant until the last two months of development so alveoli cannot inflate between breaths
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List several physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation |
Airway resistance: the major nonelastic resistance to gas flow is friction or drag that happens in the respiratory passageways Surface tension: draws liquid molecules closer together and reduces their contact and resists any force that will increase the surface area of the liquid |
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Define dead space |
volume of air in the conducting passages. (air that never reaches the alveoli)
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Understand external and internal respiration and the pressures and directions of movement involved |
External: processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body's interstitial fluid and the external environment.
Internal:absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide by cells. |
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Describe the homeostatic imbalance: cystic fibrosis |
lung congestion and infection due to lack of absorption of nutrients by pancreas, hereditary disease, mucus falls into the lungs and traps bacteria and makes airways more narrow
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Describe the homeostatic imbalance: asthma |
acute respiratory disorder characterized by unusually sensitive, irritated conducting airways.
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Describe the homeostatic imbalance: pneumonia |
excess of fluid in the lungs, no diffusion can occur
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Describe the homeostatic imbalance: respiratory distress syndrome |
condition in which not enough surfactant is produced, person becomes exhausted with the effort of inflating and deflating the lungs.
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Describe the homeostatic imbalance: emphysema |
destruction of alveolar surfaces and inadequate surface area for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. |
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Describe the homeostatic imbalance: lung collapse |
pressure outside of lungs always needs to be less than the inside, when pressure becomes greater the lungs will collapse
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Describe the respiratory elevator and link this to concerns of smoking |
cilia in the esophagus that moves mucus up and when you smoke it paralyzes the cilia and mucus will collect in the airways and lungs
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Describe compliance |
how easily the lungs expand and contract.; indication of expandibility.
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Identify the functional blood supply of the lungs |
Bronchial arteries, bronchial circulation supplies blood to the conduction zone
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Do some research into e-cigs. Describe any health concerns related to e-cigs. |
water in lungs, potential risks to health
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List the components of the lymph system and their functions |
Lymph vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, thymus
Drain fluid & protein, transport fats, make lymphocytes (immunity) of which B lymphocytes transform into plasma cells that make antibodies that fight infection. |
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Describe the composition and organization of lymphatic vessels |
lymphatic vessels are similar to veins but have minivalves to make sure only one way movement
Lymphatic capillaries: very permeable After the capillaries the lymph flows through thicker walled channels: collecting ducts, trunks, then ducts |
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Identify the mechanisms relied on for lymph transport |
Lacks a true pump, relies on action of active skeletal muscles, pressure changes in the lungs during breathing and valves. Also smooth muscles in the walls of the lymph vessels contract moving lymph along
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Identify the regions of large collections of lymphatic vessels and organs |
Lymph nodes: mouth, inguinal, axillary, cervical
Organs: tonsils, thymus, spleen, peyer's patches, appendix |
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Identify the location and function of lymph nodes |
Numerous locations along the lymphatics & they function to filter the lymph. This is a battleground for fighting infection and lymph nodes also make lymphocytes that fight infection & function in immunity.
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Identify the location and function of the tonsils |
form a ring of lymphoid tissue around the entrance of the pharynx and appear as swellings of mucosa.
Function: to gather and remove any pathogens that enter the pharynx |
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Identify the location and function of the spleen |
The spleen(largest lymphoid organ) is inferior to the stomach and has red pulp where RBCs are stored and old ones are destroyed and white pulp where lymphocytes are made and microorganisms are "eaten" by phagocytes. Function: store breakdown products of RBC's, blood platelets and monocytes for release into blood when needed, site of erythrocyte production in a fetus |
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Identify the location and function of the peyer's patches |
large clusters of lymphoid follicles in the distal portion of the small intestine
Function: filter harmful "stuffs" from small intestine |
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Identify the location and function of the cysterna chyli |
Anterior to the first two lumbar vertebrae.
It collects lymph from the two large lumbar trunks that drain the lower limbs and from the intestinal trunk that drains the digestive organs. |
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Identify the location and function of the lacteals |
highly specialized lymphatic capillaries present in the fingerlike villi of the intestinal mucosa. It take up lipids.
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Identify the location and function of the thymus |
Thymus is above the heart in the mediastinum and makes T lymphocytes that function in immunity.
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Identify the location and function of the red bone marrow |
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Identify the location and function of the appendix |
Attached to the cecum and destroys bacteria before it migrates into the large intestine.
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Identify the location and function of the right lymphatic duct |
Right Lymphatic duct collects lymph from right upper body and empties into the junction between right internal jugular and right subclavian veins. |
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Identify the location and function of the thoracic duct |
larger than the right lymphatic duct and receives lymph from the rest of the body
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Identify the location and function of the right and left subclavian veins |
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Describe the symptoms of appendicitis |
pain on the lower right side of the abdomen, pain by the navel that can shift to the lower right, pain worsens when you cough, walk, or make sudden movements. loss of appetite, nausea and vomitting, constipation or diarrhea, fever |
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Research a tonsillectomy procedure and the reasons it is performed |
Tonsils become continuously inflammed and cause difficulty breathing or constant strep throat that cant be treated by antibiotics
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Research the effects of a tonsillectomy |
can treat swollen tonsils, sleep apnea, snoring, tonsil bleeding, trouble swallowing,
can cause vomitting, bad breath, fever, throat pain or sudden hemorrhage
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Research the effects of a splenectomy |
more likely to develop infections, severe pneumonia and meningitis, lung collapse, injury to pancreas/stomach/colon |
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Research the effects of an appendectomy |
wound infection and rupture of appendix, injuries to the internal organs that aid in bowel movements
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Research the reason for lymph node biospies when someone has cancer |
Checks for cause of enlarged lymph node. Can be used to see if cancer is spreading or has spread |
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Describe the function of the digestive system |
Digestion and absorption
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Differentiate between organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs |
Alimentary canal: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
Accessory: teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, pancreas |
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Describe the structure and function the the mucosa |
Innermost layer that lines alimentary canal from mouth to anus. has three layers: lining epithelium(simple columnar epithelium), lamina propia(loose aereolar connective tissue and helps defend against bacteria), muscularis mucosae(smooth muscle layer that produces local movement)
Functions: secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones; absorb the end products of digestion into the blood; protect against infectious disease |
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Describe the structure and function of the submucosa |
Aereolar connective tissue with rich supply of blood, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers Function: supply surrounding GI tract wall. has abundant elastic tissue |
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Describe the structure and function of the muscularis externa |
Inner circular layer and longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells, also has sphincters that act as valves to control food movement
Function: segmentation and peristalsis |
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Describe the structure and function of the serosa |
also known as visceral peritoneum. formed of areolar connective tissue and mesothelium (simple squamous epithelial cells)
Function: anchors organs in place? |
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Describe the structure and function of the lumen |
Space inside of a vessel or tube that blood, lymph, air can have a passageway through |
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Differentiate between plicae circulares, villi, microvilli |
Plicae Circularies: valvular flaps in the small intestine that protrude into the small intestine lumen. Villi: elongated projection to increase surface area Microvilli: small projection that increase surface area |
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List and define the major processes occurring during digestive system activity |
Ingestion - Putting food in mouth Propulsion/Motility - move food via peristalsis Mechanical breakdown/digestion - Physical process of chewing, mixing, churning, and segmentation Chemical digestion - break down via secretion of enzymes, acids, and bile Absorption - passage of digested end products from the lumen of GI tract through mucosal cells into the lymph/blood Defecation/elimination - feces |
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Describe the location and function of the peritoneum |
body wall of the abdominopelvic cavity
Function: supports the abdominal organs |
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Differentiate between the visceral and parietal peritonea |
Visceral: covers organs
Parietal: lines the walls of the cavities |
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Describe the location and function of the lesser omenta |
Runs from the liner to the lesser curvature of the stomach with it becomes continuous with the visceral peritoneum covering the stomach
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Describe the location and function of the greater omenta |
Drapes inferiorly from the greater curvature of the stomach to cover the coils of the small intestine. Runs dorsally and superiorly wrapping the spleen and the transverse portion of the large intestine. Has fatty deposits and large collections of lymph nodes
Stores fat and protects |
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Define retroperitoneal |
Behind the retroperitoneum
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Name the retroperitoneal organs of the digestive system |
suprarenal aorta duodenum pancreas ureter colon kidneys esophagus rectum |
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Identify the structural modifications of the wall of the stomach that enhance the digestive process |
Four tunics(layers). Usual circular and longitudinal of smooth muscle, but also an incomplete innermost layer that runs obliquely. allows stomach to mix, churn,, and move food along, but also break down
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Name the cell types responsible for secreting the various components of gastric juice and indicate the importance of each component in stomach activity |
Mucuos neck cells: scattered in the "neck" and more basal regions of the glands , produce a thin, soluble mucus
Parietal cells: found mainly on apical region of the glands scattered among the cheif cells. Secrete HCl and intrinsic factor. The stomach needs the acidity to break down food and for pepsin to work Chief cells: basal regions of gastric glands. produces pepsinogen which will activate pepsin. also secrete lipase Enteroendocrine cells: release chemical messengers for histamine, serotonin and somatostatin and gastrin |
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Describe stomach structure and indicate changes in the basic alimentary canal structure that aid its digestive function |
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Explain how gastric secretion and stomach mobility are regulated |
CCK secretin gastrin
nueral and hormonal |
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Identify and describe structural modifications of the wall of the small intestine that enhance the digestive process |
Villi, plicae circulares, microvilli
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Describe the functions of intestinal hormones |
Gastrin: stimulates gastric acid secretions and proliferation of gastric epithelium
CCK: stimulates gall bladder to release bile and to relax the hepatopancreatic sphincter Secretin: stimulates secretion of bicarbonate rich pancreatic juice |
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Identify the lobules of the liver |
hexagonal structure of liver cells/hepatocytes which form a central vein that runs through the axis of the lobule
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Identify and know the function of the hepatocytes |
liver cells, process Bourne nutrients, store fat soluble proteins, detoxification, can secrete growth factor to regenerate
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Identify and know the function of the portal vein |
Carries venous blood with nutrients from digestive viscera
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Identify and know the function of the central vein |
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Identify and know the function of the sinusoids |
duct/vessel through which blood from the portal vein and the hepatic artery enter and go to the central vein
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Identify and know the function of the macrophages |
make up parts of the sinusoid walls and remove debris like worn our blood cells and bacteria
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Identify and know the function of the interlobular vein |
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Identify and know the function of the hepatic vein |
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Refer back to the hepatic portal system and link to the flow of blood into and out of the lobules, along with the production and flow of bile to the duodenum |
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State the composition and role of bile digestion |
Bile is composed of bile salts, cholesterol, phospholipids, lecythin bile separates fats, vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Also serves as an excretory route of bilirubin |
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Describe the role of the gallbladder |
store and concentrate bile
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State the role of pancreatic juices in digestion |
contains digestive enzymes that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
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Describe how bile and pancreatic juice secretion into the small intestine are regulated |
1. Chyme entering duodenum causes release of CCK and secretin from duodenal enteroendocrine cells.
2. CCK and secretin enter the bloodstream. 3. CCK induces secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice. Secretin causes secretion of HCO3̄-rich pancreatic juice. 4. Bile salts and to a lesser extent, secretin transported via bloodstream stimulate liver to produce bile more rapidly. 5. CCK (via bloodstream) causes gallbladder to contract and hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax; bile enters duodenum. 6. During cephalic and gastric phases, vagal nerve stimulation causes weak contractions of gallbladder.
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Describe the interaction of the liver, pancreas, duodenum, jejunum, gallbladder, bile duct, pancreatic duct, hepatopancreatic sphincter |
once food is in duedenum then hormones are signaled to be released, hormones go to liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and sphincter Bile duct: Pancreatic duct: carries pancreatic juice from the pancreas Hepatopancreatic sphincter is closed when no digestion is occuring
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List the major functions of the large intestine |
Absorbs water and eliminates feces
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List the enzymes involved in digestion, name the foodstuffs on which they act. Are they secreted in their active forms, if no, explain. |
Carbohydrate: salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, brush border enzymes in small intestine
Protein: Pepsin, pancreatic enzymes, brush border enzymes Fat: Lingual lipase, gastric lipase, pancreatic lipase, emulsification Nucleic Acid: pacreatic RNA and DNA, brush border enzymes |
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List the end products of protein, fat, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid digestion |
Protein: amino acids
Fat: monoglycerides and fatty acids Carbohydrate: Galactose, glucose, fructose Nucleic Acid: Pentose sugars, N-containing bases, phosphate ions |
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Describe the role if intestinal bacteria |
Recovers energy from otherwise indigestible food and synthesizing some vitamins.
Fermentation: gut bacteria ferment indigestible carbohydrates and mucin and produce fuel in short fatty acid chain form Vitamin synthesis: B complex vitamins and some vitamin K |
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Research the H. pylori ulcer connection |
Helicobacter pylori is an acid resistant corkscrew-shaped bacteria. Destroys the protective mucosal layer
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Describe the external gross anatomy of the kidney |
There is a hilium which is a little cleft on the portion of the kidney that faces inwards where the ureter, renal blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves all connect to the kidney. Three layers surround the kidney: renal fascia an outer layer of dense connective tissue to anchor the kidney, perirenal fat capsule a fatty mass that cushions the kidney, fibrous capsule a transparent layer that prevents infections from spreading from around the kidney to the kidney |
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Describe the internal gross anatomy of the kidney |
Most superficial region is the renal cortex. Next portion is the renal medulla which is subdivided into renal pyramids that are separated by renal columns. The points of the renal pyramids are the minor calyces. The minor calyces form together to form the major calyces that join into the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis connects to the ureter |
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Describe the functions of the kidney |
Functions: Regulating water and ion concentrations, filtration of toxic materials from blood like urea, produce erythropoietin and renin
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Trace the blood supply through the kidney |
Renal artery to segmental artery to interlobar artery to arcuate artery to interlobular artery (cortical radiate artery) to afferent arteriole to golmerular capillaries to efferent arteriole to peritubular capillaries to venule to interlobular vein (cortical radiate vein) to arcuate vein to interlobar vein to renal vein
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Trace the path urine takes from filtrate to expulsion from the urethra |
Glomerular capillaries in the glomerular capsule to the proximal convuluted tubule to the descending loop of henle to theasending loop of henle to the distal convuluted tubule to the collecting duct to the papillary duct to renal papillae to minor calyx to major calyx to renal pelvis to ureter to urinary bladder to urethra
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Link the pathway of blood to the pathway of urine |
Renal artery to segmental artery to interlobar artery to arcuate artery to interlobular artery (cortical radiate artery) to afferent arteriole to glomerular capillaries to proximal convuluted tubule to descending loop of henle to ascending loop of henle to distal convuluted tubule to collecting duct to papillary duct to renal papillae to minor calyx to major calyx to renal pelvis to ureter to urinary bladder to urethra
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Describe the three components of urine formation |
Filtration(pushing out the stuff)
Re-absorption(want them back in the blood) Secretion(from the blood back into the filtrate)
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Describe the anatomy of a nephron |
Renal corpuscle: Has a hollow glomerulus capsule(also called Bowman's capsule) that has a ball of capillaries inside called the glomerulus.
Renal tubule: the section of tubes beginning with the proximal convoluted tubule that drops into the descending loop of Henle then rises in the ascending loop of Henle and goes through the distal convoluted tubule before emptying into a collecting duct |
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Describe the structure and function of the filtration membrane |
lies between the blood and the interior of the glomerular capsule Has three layers: fenestrated endothelium(pores) that allows blood components to pass through but not blood; basement membrane composed of the fused basal laminae that blocks all but the smallest proteins and repels plasma proteins; foot processes of podocytes that blocks all macromolecules |
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Describe the structure and function of afferent and efferent arterioles |
Afferent arterioles branch from the cortical radiate arteries which feeds the glomerulus and runs through the renal cortex.
Efferent arteriolese drain the glomerulus and feeds either the peritubular capillaries or vasa recta. Peritubular capillaries absorb the solutes and water from the tubules. Vasa Recta supplies oxygen and nutrients to the medulla. |
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Describe the structure and function of the renal corpuscle |
has a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus that are surrounded by the glomerular capsule.
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Describe the structure and function of the glomerular capillaries |
Made up of endothelium that is fenestrated (meaning many pores) that allows solutes to pass through (but not proteins) that allow for the the formation of urine
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Describe the structure and function of PCT |
Made up of cuboidal epithelial cells with large mitochondria and their apical surfaces have dense microvilli
Function: responsible for reabsorption of water and other substances from tubular fluid ~60% of reabsorption happens here
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Describe the structure and function of the descending limb of LOH |
Made up of simple squamous epithelium
Filters out water |
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Describe the structure and function of the ascending limb of LOH |
Made up of cuboidal epithelium and macula densa Filters out ions like NaCl
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Describe the structure and function of the DCT |
Made up of cuboidal epithelium cells and lack microvilli
Hormones affect the filtrate here |
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Describe the structure and function of the collecting duct |
Has two cell types, principal cells that have short microvilli and intercalated cells that are cuboidal with abundant microvilli.
Drains the urine from the renal pelvis of the nephrons into the ureter. |
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Describe the forces(pressures) that promote or counteract glomerular filtration |
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Differentiate between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons (structurally and functionally) |
Cortical nephrons account for 85% of the nephrons in the kidneys. Found majorly in the cortex.
Juxtamedullary nephrons are found on the cortex-medulla junction, help produce concentrated urine |
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Describe the normal properties of urine and reasons why abnormal components might be present |
Normal: water accounts for 95% of urine volume, the other 5% has solutes. The largest component of urine by weight is urea which is from the breakdown of amino acids. There are also nitrogenous wastes like uric acid and creatinine.
Abnormal: Glucose present-diabetus mellitus; proteins present-physical exertion or pregnancy or renal disease or heart failure; Ketone bodies-formation of ketone bodies; hemoglobin-hemolytic anemia or severe burns; Bile pigments-liver disease or obstruction of bile ducts; erythrocytes-bleeding urinary tract; leukocytes-uti |
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Describe the importance of tubular reabsorption and list several substances that are secreted including locations of reabsorption |
Without tubular reabsorption our urine would drain our plasma in urine in less than half an hour. Tubular reabsorption reclaims solutes and water and returns them into the blood
PCT: nutrients like glucose, amino acids, water, lipids Nephron loop: water, salts, calcium and magnesium DCT: Salt, calcium Collecting duct: salts, water |
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Describe the importance of tubular secretion and list several substances that are reabsorbed, including location of reabsorption |
Tubular secretion moves more selected substances like H+, K+, NH4+, creatinine, and certain organix acids and bases, from the peritubular capillaries into the filtrate
Important for disposing substances such as certain drugs and metabolites, eliminating undesirable substances that were reabsorbed, ridding body of excess K+, controlling blood pH. |
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Explain formation of dilute versus concentrated urine. Include ADH and aldosterone when discussing concentrated urine formation |
ADH makes the cells more permeable to water(because it determines the number of aquaporins). More ADH means more water will be reabsorbed. When the body is overhydrated, the ADH decreases and water is expelled
Aldosterone tells the collecting ducts to retain Na+, which in turn will also retain water. Concentrated urine is when there is little water to dilute the urea. |
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Describe the age-related aspects of the urinary system we discussed |
Urinary incontenence: inability to control urination from weakened pelvis muscles urinary retention: urinary bladder is unable to expel the urine |