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502 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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How is blood different from most other extracellular fluid?
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It has protein and other cells not present in other ECF
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What are the generic functions of blood?
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1-transports hormones, oxygen, CO2, nutrients…etc.
2-homeostasis 3-Protection |
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In what ways does blood contribute to homeostasis?
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It maintains body temperature, body pH, and water volume of cells
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In what ways does blood contribute to protection?
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clot formation, white blood cells eat up viruses and bacteria, antibodies nutrilize bacteria and viruses
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What is the pH of blood?
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7.35-7.45
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What is blood's internal temperature?
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38 degrees Celsius or 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit
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What are the 2 components of blood?
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1-Plasma
2-Formed elements |
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Define Formed Elements of blood
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Cells and cell fragments in blood
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Define Plasma
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Liquid part of blood
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What are the 3 types of formed elements?
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1-Leukocytes
2-Erythrocytes 3-Thrombocytes |
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What are the 2 categories of leukocytes?
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1-granulocytes
2-Agranulocytes |
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What are the 3 types of Granulocytes?
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1-Neutrophils
2-Basophils 3-Eosinophils |
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What are the 2 types of Agranulocytes?
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1-monocytes
2-Lymphocytes |
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What are thrombocytes?
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platelets of formed elements in blood
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Define Hemoatopoieses
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Production of all formed elements
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Where does Hemopoesis occur in the embryo?
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Liver, spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow, thymus, and yolk sac
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Where does Hemopoesis occur in adults?
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myeloid tissue and lymphoid tissue
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What gives rise to agranulocytes in the adult?
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Lymphoid tissue
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Define Myeloid tissue
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red bone marrow in sternum, ribs, vertebrae, and pelvis
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Define Lymphoid tissue
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tissue of lymphatic system
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Where can lymphoid tissue be found?
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In the spleen and lymph nodes
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Define Mesenchyme
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stem cells for all types of connective tissue
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What does the pluripotent give rise to?
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More specialized stem cells:
1.Proerythroblast->RBC 2.Myeloblast->Granulocyte 3.Megakaryoblast>Thrombocytes 4.Lymphoblast->Lymphocyte 5.Monoblast->Monocyte |
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What makes erythrocytes have a large surface area?
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the biconcave disc
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Since erythrocytes don't have mitochondria, what canNOT they do?
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Carry out cellular respiration
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Define Heme
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Pigmented globin molecule that contains Iron
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What are the 3 functions of hemoglobin?
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1-Combines reversibly with Oxygen
2-Combines reversibly with CO2 3-Capable of buffering hydrogen ions |
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What is it called when hemoglobin is combined with oxygen?
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Oxyhemoglobin
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What is it called when hemoglobin is bound with carbon dioxide?
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Carbaminohemoglobin
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What is the normal lifespan of an RBC?
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120 days
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Define Erythropoiesis
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Production of erythrocytes
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Briefly explain the process of erythropoiesis
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1)Pluripotent stem gives rise to proerythroblast, where cells make hemoglobin.
2)Dumps nucleus to make room for more hemoglobin 3)mature RBC is now created called a reticulocyte 4)some reticulocytes will move into circulation. |
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Where does erythropoiesis occur?
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In bone marrow
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Define Reticulocyte Count
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Counting the number of reticulocytes in circulation, which gives an indication of the rate at which you are making RBCs right now.
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Which type of feedback loop does erythropoiesis use?
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Negative feedback loop
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What organ does the erythropoiesis involve?
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The kidney
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What molecule does the kidney monitor that is used as a control mechanism?
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O2
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What does the kidney do when Oxygen levels go below normal?
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The kidney secretes the hormone erythropoietin , which is then transported to red bone marrow, which stimulates erythropoiesis
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What are the 5 necessary substances that make RBCs?
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1-amino acids
2-lipids 3-iron 4-vitamin b12 5-Intrinsic factor |
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Why is Iron necessary to make RBCs?
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Because heme contains an Iron atom
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What substance acts as an enzyme in RBCs?
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Vitamin B12
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Define Intrinsic Factor
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Substance that's normally produced in the stomach and is necessary for absorption of B12 from the digestive tube.
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What causes Sickle cell anemia, specifically?
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The amino acid is changed, which causes there to be a weak spot in the globin that eventually collapses and looks like a cigar.
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Define Sickle Cell Crisis
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When RBC lodges in blood vessels and deprives blood vessels with blood and, therefore, oxygen. They must use anaerobic respiration which causes lactic acid build up that causes pain.
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What is Thalassemia
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Genetic disorder in which hemoglobin molecules are missing complete globins so it is unable to transport enough oxygen
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Define Anemia
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Individual lacks sufficient hemoglobin to transport enough O2.
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Define Hypoxia
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Definciency of Oxygen
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Define Hematocrit
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Diagnostic tool that tells the % of RBCs in whole blood.
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Define Agglutinogens
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glycoproteins found on the cell membrane of red blood cells that act as a self-marker and determine your blood type
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Define blood doping
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artificially increasing your rbc count with erythropoietin
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What are the least numerous of blood cells?
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WBCs
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What are the most numerous of blood cells?
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RBCs
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Do WBCs have nulei?
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yeah
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Do WBCs migrate out of the blood?
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yes, into other tissues
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What self-markers do WBCs have instead of agglutinogens?
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Major histocompatibility complex antigen (MHC antigen)
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MHC antigens are located on all cells except for RBCs, but what apecial MHC antigen do WBCs have?
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Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)
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What shape are granulocytes?
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Lobed nuclei that looks pinched.
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What are the 3 granulocytes?
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1-Neutrophils
2-Basophils 3-Eosinphils |
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What color and shape are Agranulocytes?
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Large and dark-stained nuclei.
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What are the 2 agranulocytes?
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Monocytes and lymphocytes
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What are the steps of phagocytosis by leukocytes?
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1-chemotaxis
2-Diapedesis 3-Adherence 4-Engulf 5-Secretion of chemicals |
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What happens during chemotaxis?
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chemical attraction by histamine brings blood to damage site
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What happens during Diapedesis?
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Leukocytes cross through BV wall to where damage site is
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What happens during Adherence stage in leuokcyte phagocytosis?
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WBC adheres to bacteria/virus
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What happens during the engulf phase of leukocyte phagocytosis?
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Surrounds microbe and forms vacuale to eat up bacteria/virus
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What is the other name for Neutrophils?
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polymorphonucleocyte
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Describe the nuclei in neutrophils
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they vary from one to the next
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Define Band
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immature nuetrophil
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What is the first type of leukocyte to respond to an infection?
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neutrophils
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Describe a monocyte
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largest of WBCs; large dark staining nucleus that has soft indentation; highly phagocytic; slow to respond to infection.
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Define Macrophage
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Monocyte that has migrated out of the blood.
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What is a monocyte that helps activate immune system cells?
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Macrophages
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Describe basophils
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Least numerous of WBCs; slightly larger than RBCs; granules in basophils are very large and DARK purple; can migrate into tissue spaces.
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Define Mast cell
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Basophil that has migrated out of blood into tissue space.
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Define IgE
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Antibody protein in Mast cell that can form antigen-antibody complex that causes mast cell to release histamine.
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What does heparin prevent?
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Coagulation
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What does histamine do?
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strongly attracts phagocytic cells and triggers inflammation.
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Define Eosinophil
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granulocytes that have granules that are red-orange in color. THey are 2X the size of RBCs and most numerous in mucosa of intestines and respiratory tract.
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Which well-known chemical does eosinophil contain?
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Antihistamine
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Define Antihistamine
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A Chemical that blocks histamine
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What do eosinophils attack?
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They phagocytose antibody-antigen complex
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Describe Lymphocytes
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2nd most numerous of WBCs; Found in lymphoid tissue; smaller than a monocyte; large nucleus
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What do lymphocytes give rise to?
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T cells and B cells
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Which system are T cells and B cells from?
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the immune system
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What is the purpose of a differential count?
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To determine the number of each type of WBC in a total od 100 WBCs to provide diagnostic info.
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Define leukopoiesis
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The production of WBCs
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What hormones control leukocytes?
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colony stimulation factors
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What is the lifespan of a leukocyte?
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10-14 days
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Why is the WBCs lifespan relatively short?
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because their job is phagocytosis, which takes a lot of work
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What are the most important sources of colony stimulation factors?
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macrophages and T cells
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Define Thrombocytes
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Pieces/fragments of cells in the blood. Also called platelets. They function in blood clot formation
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Define megakaryoblast
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The stem cell of a thrombocyte
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How is a thrombocyte made from a megakaryoblast?
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The megakaryoblast undergoes mitosis, but not cell division. This causes the cell to splinter and form thrombocytes
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Define serotonin
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chemical that is released by thrombocytes that causes smooth muscle to contract
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What is the lifespan of thrombocytes?
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10-12 days
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Define thrombopoiesis
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Production of thrombocytes, which make thrombopoietin and stores the platelets in the spleen
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Define Plasma
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The liquid portion of blood that contains proteins and solutes as well
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What % do plasma proteins make up plasma?
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6-8%
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What make up the viscosity in blood plasma?
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the plasma proteins
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What are the 2 functions of plasma proteins?
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1-to serve as a reservoir of amino acids in the body
2-to produce colloidal osmotic pressure. |
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How is producing colloidal osmotic pressure helpful in the blood?
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It maintains blood volume and, therefore, blood pressure
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What 3 groups are plasma proteins divided into?
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1-Albumen
2-Globulin 3-Fibrinogen |
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Which is the most numerous plasma protein?
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Albumen
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What are important factors of the plasma protein, Albumen?
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1-It is important in functioning as a buffer in blood
2-it transports many substances in blood 3-it functions in wound healing 4-made by liver 5-easily depleted |
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Which type of globulins are there and which is the one that makes up your antibodies?
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Alpha, Beta, and Gamma; Gamma=your antibodies
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What does -OGEN tell you about a word?
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that it is the inactive form of the molecule
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What determines osmotic pressure in blood?
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Albumen
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Which electrolyte creates osmotic pressure in interstitial compartments?
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potassium
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Which blood plasma protein functions in blood clot formation and is a soluble protein?
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Fibrinogen
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Define Fibrin
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The insoluble thread of fibrinogen that function in blood clotting
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Define hemostasis
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The process for reestablishing a closed vascular system after you have broken a blood vessel
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What is important while obtaining hemostasis?
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1-it needs to occur quickly
2-you only want it to occur when and where it needs to occur 3-it occurs in 3 phases that overlap but occur in sequence |
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What are the 3 phases of hemostasis?
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1-vascular spasm
2-platelet plug 3-coagulation |
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Which chemical is released during vascular spasm?
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serotonin
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What happens to the smooth muscle when the blood vessel wall is damaged?
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it contracts, making the opening smaller
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Why do platelets repel each other?
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Because they have like charges
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What happens during Platelet Plug Formation?
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Platelets connect to each other at the exact point of breakage of BV. This turns into a clot and when the plug forms, they break down and release serotonin
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Define Serum
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plasma minus the clotting proteins that is the yellow part of plasma
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Define Fibrin
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Formed elements that make clot
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Define Coagulation
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Process of forming a blood clot
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Is coagulation a good thing in an intact blood vessel?
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NO
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Where are Coagulation Factors found in the body?
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they are found in the liver
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What are the 3 processes of coagulation?
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1. Prothrombin activator-->prothrombinase
2.prothrombinase activates prothrombin to make thrombin 3. thrombin activates fibrinogen to make fibrin |
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Define Fibrin
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insoluble protein thread
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How does fibrin help in coagulation?
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It traps formed elements that make the clot
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What are the 2 pathways to get to Fibrin?
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1. intrinsic
2. extrinsic |
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What is involved in the extrinsic pathway to fibrin?
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Breaking of the BV wall releases tissue thromboplastin. This adds to the coagulation facotr to make prothrombinase (happens only in 1st step)
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What is involved in the intrinsic pathway to fibrin?
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breaking of BV wall causes platelets to be trapped and release coagulation factors to make prothrombinase (happens only in 1st step)
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What is the only difference in the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways to fibrin?
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How Prothrombin is formed
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What happens during the retraction phases of coagulation?
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The clot shrinks, which causes the clot to become tighter and draws broken BV wall closer together for faster repair. The fibroblasts deposit fibers to make a new vessel wall.
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Define Fibrinolysis
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Breaking down of fibrin (the clot)
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What happens during fibrinolysis? Or, HOW does the fibrin break down?
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plasminogen gives rise to plasmin and plasmin dissolves fibrin. It helps control the size of the clot WHILE you are bleeding
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What does fibrinolysis help control
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The size of clot while you are bleeding
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What are 2 abnormalities of hemostasis?
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1. hemophilia
2. thrombosis |
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Define Hemophilia
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Not being able to form a clot because the lack ability to make a coagulation factor
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Define Thrombosis
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Formation of clot in an intact vessel
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Define thrombus
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Actual clot that is forming
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Define embolus
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Thrombus that has pulled free of vessel wall and is now in circulation. (eventually will land in BV that it is too big to fit through)
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What are 5 preventions of thrombosis?
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1.Endothelium prevents it from getting trapped.
2.Antithrombin—plasma protein that blocks thrombin 3.Fibrin threads absorb thrombin so can’t make anymore fibrin threads and so it can’t make anymore clots 4.Heparin—anticoagulation factor that prevents conversion of prothrombin to thrombin (shuts doen clot formation) 5.Basophils/Mast cells—Interferes with formation of thrombin |
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Define Antithrombin
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plasma protein that blocks thrombin
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Define Heparin
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Anticoagulation factor that prevents conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, which shuts down clot formation.
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How do basophils/mast cells prevent thrombosis?
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they interfere with the formation of thrombin
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How does Aspirin prevent clotting?
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It inactivates enzymes and platelets, which reduces the likelihood of clot to form.
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What are you actually doing when you are blood typing?
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you are Identifying agglutinogen on blood cells
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Define agglutinogen
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antigen on cell membrane of RBC
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Define aglutinin
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antibody for agglutinogen
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Define agglutination
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clumping of RBCs due to formation of agglutinogen-agglutinin complex (antibody-antigen complex).
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Define Antibody
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proteins that are capable of forming lock and key fit with antigen. Inactivates antigen
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What are the antibodies for type A blood?
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b antibodies
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What are the antibodies for type B blood?
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a antibodies
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What are the antibodies for type AB blood?
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neither a nor b antibodies
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What are the antibodies for type O blood?
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a and b antibodies
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who may be donors to a type A blood type?
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type A and type O
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who may be a donor for a type B blood type?
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types B and O
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who may be a donor for a type AB blood type?
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types A, B, AB, and O
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who may be a donor for a type O blood type?
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Type O blood
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If you have a D on the antigen, are you Rh+ or Rh-?
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Rh+
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Just something good to remember...
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Rh- blood can never be given Rh+ unless mom is pregnant.
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Just something good to remember...
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Rh- will not have d antibody unless exposed to Rh+ blood
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What is the TRUE universal donor for blood?
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O-
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Define Antiserum
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solution that contains a specific antibody
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True or False: Clumping is not same as clotting or coagulation
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True
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What is Anti A?
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Contains antibody for A=a
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What organ in the body acts as a pump for blood in a closed vascular system?
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The Heart
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What does the right side of the heart supply?
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to the lungs and back
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What does the left side of the heart supply?
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to the body and back
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How heavy is the heart, about?
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about 1 lb
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Where is the apex of the heart?
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it is on the inferior side of the heart
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Where is the Base of the heart?
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It is on the superior of the heart
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What is the outermost covering of the heart?
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the pericardium
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What is the fibrous pericardium?
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the outer covering of the pericardium made up of dense connective tissue that anchors the heart to surrounding structures.
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What is the serous pericardium?
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the inner layer of the pericardium that is composed of 2 more layers
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What are the 2 layers of the serous pericardium?
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Parietal and visceral layers
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What is inside the pericardial cavity?
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fluid between the parietal and visceral layers that acts as a lubricant fir the heart.
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What is another name for visceral pericardium?
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epicardium
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What are the 3 layers of the heart wall?
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1. endocardium
2. myocardium 3. epicardium |
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What tissue is the endocardium made up of?
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endothelium connected to a layer of connective tissue
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What tissue is myocardium made up of?
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cardiac muscle fibers
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What is the thickest layer of the heart wall?
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myocardium
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what is the responsibility of the myocardium?
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to PUMP the blood
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What makes up the connective tissue framework in myocardium?
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collagen and elastic fibers that reinforce the myocardium
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What tissue makes up the epicardium?
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Mesothelium
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What is the visceral layer of the serous pericardium?
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Epicardium
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what are the four chambers of the heart called and explain where they are.
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left and right atria on the top and left and right ventricles on the inferior of the heart
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Define Interatrial septum
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Septum dividing 2 atria
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Define interventricular septum
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Septum dividing 2 ventricles
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Define Auricle
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Ear-shaped structure located on the outside surface of the heart lining the atria.
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Define Posterior ventricular sulcus
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A groove on the outside surface of the heart that delineates the 2 ventricles and contains two pads of adipose tissue.
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Define Coronary sulcus
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also called atrioventricular sulcus, it's a groove on the outside surface of the heart that separates the atria and ventricles of the heart and contains coronary blood vessels
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Define Anterior Ventricular Sulcus
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Groove on the front, outside surface of the heart that delineates the 2 ventricles and contains adipose pads
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What are the receiving chambers of the heart?
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the left and right atria
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What are the discharge chambers of the heart?
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The left and right ventricles
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Define Pectinate Muscles
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ridges of muscle in the anterior wall of the atria
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Define Fossa Ovalis
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Indentation of the interatrial septum, sometimes called the remnant of the foramen ovale
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Define Trabeculae Carnae
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Ridges on the internal surface of ventricles
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Define papillary muscles
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Finger-like projections from the internal wall of the ventricle
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Are ventricular walls or atrial walls thicker?
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Ventricular
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Is the write or left ventricle thicker?
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the left b/c it serves the body
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Give 6 simple steps to explain blood flow through the heart
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1-right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via vena cavas or coronary sinus
2-Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle into pulmonary trunk and splits into left and right arteries 3-Blood goes into the lungs nd gets oxygen then goes to the left atrium 4-oxygenated blood goes into left ventricle and into ascending and then descending aorta |
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Which structure does the aorta pass through in the body?
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the diaphragm
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where does the coronary circulation's blood flow pass through?
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the heart wall/myocardium
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What type of energy does the heart need?
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ATP
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How must the heart receive oxygen?
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aerobically
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What delivers blood to the myocardium since the wall is too thick to permit diffusion?
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Blood vessels
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What are the very first branches after the ascending aorta called?
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the right and left coronary arteries
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What are the arteries on the right coronary artery?
|
The interventricular artery and marginal artery
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What are the arterial branches on the left coronary artery?
|
the interventricular artery and the circumflex artery
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What does the right interventricular artery serve?
|
The posterior wall of the ventricles
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What doe the marginal artery serve?
|
the right atrium and posterior ventricular wall of right atrium
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What does the left coronary interventricular artery serve?
|
the anterior wall of both ventricles
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What does the circumflex artery serve?
|
The left atrium and posterior ventricular wall of left atrium
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Define Coronary Sinus
|
The vein that carries CO2 rich blood into the right atrium from the myocardium
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Can the cardiac muscle fibers tolerate anaerobic cellular respiration?
|
NO
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Define Anastomoses
|
Blood vessels that provide collateral circulation or backup blood flow to a given tissue. It's in place all of the time)
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Ischemia
|
Blockage in one of the coronary vessels
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Define Ischemia
|
Blockage in one of the coronary vessels
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Define Infarction
|
Death of tissue beyond blockage
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Define Angina
|
pain associated with reduced blood flow to part of the myocardium, which causes lactic acid build up.
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What do valves help prevent from happening?
|
backflow of blood
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Define Atroventricular valves
|
Made up of flaps of tissue called cusps
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Define Cusp
|
Tissue that grows out of wall of the heart made up of a core of connective tissue covered with endothelium.
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Define Chordae Tendinae
|
Cords of connective tissue
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When cusps termminate in a point that is down into the ventricles, what is it that they attach to?
|
chordae tendinae
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What are chordae tendinae attached to on the opposite end of the cusp attachment?
|
papillary muscles
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What is the cusp on the right side of the heart called?
|
the tricuspid valve
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What is the cusp on the left side of the heart called?
|
the bicuspid or mitral valve
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Where are the Semilunar valves located?
|
between the ventricles and vessels that drain them
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Which valves are at the entry to the atria?
|
Psych! There are none.
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Describe the shape of the semiulnar valve
|
it is shaped like a pcket that faces the blood vessel
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What is the semiulnar valve located on the right side of the heart?
|
the pulmonary valve
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what is the semilunar valve located on the left side of the heart?
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the aortic valve
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Define Stenosis
|
A valve that has become stiff so it blocks the passageway, which makes it more difficult to move blood through the passageway.
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How are cardiac muscle fibers different from skeletal muscle fibers?
|
they are short and fat and branch.
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How are the cardiac muscle tissues interconnected?
|
By intercalated discs
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Which junctions make up the intercallates discs?
|
gap junctions and desmosomes
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Why are Gap Junctions an important feature in cardiac muscle?
|
They permit waves of depolarization from muscle fiber to muscle fiber
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Depolarization involves the influx of which ion?
|
Na+
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What can the heart use for ATP production if not glucose?
|
It can use lactic acid, fatty acids, and ketones
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Define Creatine kinase
|
Enzyme that converts energy from creatine phosphate to ATP
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In which diagnosis is creatine kinase usually used?
|
Heart attack
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Is creatine phosphate intracellular or extracellular?
|
intracellular
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Is creatine kinase intracellular or extracellular?
|
intracellular
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Define Creatine Phosphate
|
high energy phophate
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Define Myoglobin
|
Pigmented molecule similar to hemoglobin that loosely binds to oxygen
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Where is calcium stored during the resting state of a skeletal muscle?
|
in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
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Where does cardiac muscle acquire calcium?
|
from the ECF
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Define Autorhythmicity
|
Cardiac muscle fibers beat about 70 times per minutes w/o external stimulus so the gap junctions make 2 separate hearts that are placed adjacent to each other beat simultaneously
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What lies between the atria and the ventricles?
|
A connective tissue layer
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Define Conduction system of the heart
|
Composed of nodal tissue, it allows the heart chambers to contract in an orderly fashion.
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Define nodal tissue
|
Cardiac muscle fiber that lost the ability to contract and gains ability to generate an action potential.
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What is the electrical system of the heart?
|
the nodal tissue
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What 5 substances make up nodal tissue?
|
1. Sinoatrial Node (SA node0
2. Atrioventricular node (AV node) 3. Atrioventricular bundle 4. Bundle Branches. 5. Purkinje fibers |
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Where is the sinoatrial node found?
|
in the right atrial wall just inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava
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What is the "pacemaker" of the heart?
|
The sinoatrial node
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Why is the sinoatrial node called the pacemaker of the heart?
|
because it sends waves of depolarization 70 times/minute to cause atria to contract and generate an action potential
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Whre is the Atrioventricular node located?
|
In the inferior region of the interatrial septum.
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What does the atrioventricular node do when it receives the action potential from the SA node?
|
It holds onto it until the atria finish contracting and then the AV node fired and an AP is generated into the rest of the nodal system.
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What is the mechanical system for the heart?
|
the myocardium
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What is another name for the Atrioventricular bundle?
|
Bundle of His
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What are 2 differences between skeletal and cardiac muscle action potentials in the sliding filament theory?
|
1. the source of calcium ions
2. the duration of the resulting contraction |
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What 3 phases does the action potential of cardiac muscle fiber have?
|
1. rapid depolarization
2. plateau 3. repolarization |
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What happens during the plateau phase of cardiac muscle action potential?
|
As Na+ channels close, Ca++ channels open and Ca++ moves into cell by diffusion, which causes the release of ca++ from SR. This causes the K+channels to open and ca++ comes in while K+ leaves cell and causes depolarization
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What happens during the repolarization phase of cardiac muscle action potential?
|
Ca++ channels begin to close and K+ channels open and cause it do diffuse out of cell. Repolarization occurs
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What is it that guarantees that the heart won't go into tetany?
|
The absolute refractory period on cardiac muscle fibers is longer
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Define Electrocardiogram
|
a device that records electric wave on the surface of the heart and records repolarization and depolarization.
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What does the P Wave record?
|
atrial depolarization
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What does the QRS complex record?
|
ventricular depolarization
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What does the T wave record?
|
the ventricular repolarization
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Where does the atrial repolarization occur?
|
during the QRS complex
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Does the mechanical or electrical happen first?
|
the electrical
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Define arrhythmia (or disrhythmia)
|
Any variation from normal heartbeat
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What is arrhythmia typically due to (2 causes)
|
1. anything that alters SA node activity
2. anything that interferes with the conduction system of the heart |
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What is a first degree heart block?
|
It is an interferance with the conduction system of the heart that has a longer period of time for an action potential to travel through nodal tissue
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What is a second degree heart block?
|
When ventricles miss a beat
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What is a third degree heart block?
|
When there is a complete separation of atrial and ventricular activity so that they are not communicating with each other.
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What are the 2 distinct sounds during the cardiac cycle?
|
1. louder and is the closing of the Atrioventricular valves
2. shorter and sharper and closing of Semiulnars. |
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Define Cardiac Cycle
|
All events associated with blood-flow through the heart in one complete heartbeat.
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|
Is the cardiac cycle mechanical or electrical system of the heart?
|
mechanical
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Define Systole
|
Contraction to increase pressure
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Define Diastole
|
Relaxation to decrease pressure
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|
At the end of the atrial diastole what has happened?
|
the entire heart is at complete relaxation so the AV valves are open while the semiulnars are closed. Blood is now moving down into the ventricles.
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What are the 3 steps in the cardiac cycle?
|
1. SA node fires and atria contract
2. AV node fires and myocardium goes into ventricles causing them to systole 3. entire heart goes into period of rest/diastole. |
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|
Which side of the heart does the cardiac cycle occur on?
|
the right side AND the left side
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While the ventricles are in diastole where are the atria?
|
in systole
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How much of the total cardiac cycle is relaxation time?
|
half the total time
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|
When does myocardium receive blood?
|
during the relaxation phase of cardiac cycle
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Define Cardiac Output
|
Volume of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute from left ventricle to aorta per minute
|
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|
What two factors determine cardiac output?
|
1. number of blood pumped per contraction
2. number of blood contracted per minute |
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Define Stroke volume
|
volume of blood ejected by left ventricle per contraction
|
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|
What 2 factors determine stroke volume?
|
1. force of contraction
2. volume of venous blood returned to the heart |
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|
Where does venous blood come from?
|
comes from the pulmonary vein
|
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|
Define Starlings law of the heart
|
the length of cardiac muscle fiber determines the force of the contraction of that cardiac muscle fiber
|
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|
What does starlings law of the heart allow the heart to adjust?
|
the force of the contraction to accommodate the amount of blood needed to move.
|
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|
What happens to cardiac output when stroke output increases?
|
it also increases
|
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Define Cardiac Reserve
|
The difference between resting and cardiac output and maximum cardiac output
|
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|
Define Afterload?
|
The pressure the heart must overcome in order for the ventricles to eject blood
|
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|
If the heart is left without any outside interference, What causes it to beat and how many times does it fire?
|
The SA node and 100 times/minute
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|
What are 4 extrinsic factors that affect heart rate?
|
1. Autonomic nervous system
2. Physical factors 3. Sensory info 4. chemicals |
|
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|
What is the most important extrinsic factor that affects heart rate?
|
The ANS
|
|
|
|
Where is the cardiac center located?
|
in the medulla oblongata
|
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|
What does the cardiac center function in regulating?
|
Heart rate
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|
What are 2 components that make up the ANS cardiac center?
|
1. Cardioacceleratory center
2. Cardioinhibitory center |
|
|
|
Which Thoracic nerve fibers does the cardioacceleratory center use?
|
T1-T5
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Does the cardioacceleratory center speed up or slow down the heart?
|
speed it up
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|
What does the cardioacceleratory center utilize that binds to beta 1 adrenergic receptors?
|
norepinephrine
|
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|
|
What happens after norepinephrine binds to beta 1 adrenergic receptors?
|
nodal tissue fires faster and HR gets faster which causes myocardium to increase force of contraction
|
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|
Which nervous system is used by the cardioinhibitory center?
|
PNS
|
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|
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Which nerve does the cardioinhibitory center use?
|
Vagus nerve
|
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Does the cardioacceleratory center speed up or slow down the heart?
|
speed it up
|
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|
|
What does the cardioacceleratory center utilize that binds to beta 1 adrenergic receptors?
|
norepinephrine
|
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|
|
What happens after norepinephrine binds to beta 1 adrenergic receptors?
|
nodal tissue fires faster and HR gets faster which causes myocardium to increase force of contraction
|
|
|
|
Which nervous system is used by the cardioinhibitory center?
|
PNS
|
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|
|
Which nerve does the cardioinhibitory center use?
|
Vagus nerve
|
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|
|
What cardiac center uses acetylcholine? What is it used for?
|
Cardioinhibitory; slows HR and force of contraction
|
|
|
|
When at rest, which nervous system controls the HR?
|
PNS because it is slightly stronger than the SNS
|
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|
Define vagal tone
|
When at rest, PNS controls HR because it's slightly stronger than the SNS
|
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|
What are the 3 sensory information receptors that alter activity in the cardiac center?
|
1. Proprioceptors
2. Baroreceptors 3. Chemoreceptors |
|
|
|
n acerbity
|
bitterness of speech and temper; ADJ. acerbic: bitter; acrid (in taste, manner, or tone)
|
zsfv
|
|
|
What's another name for baroreceptors?
|
pressoreceptors
|
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|
|
Which 2 hormones affect heart rate?
|
1. Norepinephrine/epinephrine
2. Throxine (thyroid hormone) |
|
|
|
What structure secretes norepinephrine/epinephrine
|
adrenal medulla
|
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|
|
What does the adrenal medulla receive from the SNS to secrete epinephrine?
|
preganglionic fibers
|
|
|
|
which hormone mimics the SNS?
|
norepinephrine/epinephrine
|
|
|
|
What secretes throxine?
|
thyroid gland
|
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|
|
give another name used for throxine
|
thyroid hormone
|
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|
|
Does norepinephrine and epinephrine cause HR to increase or decrease
|
increase
|
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|
|
When secreted in large quantities, does throxine increase or decrease HR?
|
increase
|
|
|
|
Which 3 ions affect HR?
|
1. calcium
2. potassium 3. sodium |
|
|
|
Define Hypocalcemia in terms of how it affects the heart
|
depresses heart action
|
|
|
|
Define hypercalcemia in terms of how it affects the heart
|
increases heart rate/action
|
|
|
|
Define Hypokalemia in terms of how it affects the heart
|
don't have enough K+ in ECF so beats poorly (arrhythmia)
|
|
|
|
Define Hyperkalcemia in terms of how it affects the heart
|
Too much K+ in ECF that causes polarization which makes it more difficult to make an action potential and therefore cardiac arrest occurs
|
|
|
|
Define Hypernaremia
|
Inhibits movement of calcium ions from ECF into cardiac muscle fuber
|
|
|
|
What are the 5 physical factors that affect heart rate?
|
1. age
2. gender 3. exercise 4. fever 5. cold/hypothermia |
|
|
|
Define Hydrostatic Pressure
|
The pressure exerted by the volume of blood when confined in a blood vessel
|
|
|
|
Define diffusion
|
the movement of particles from high concentration to an area of low concentration
|
|
|
|
Define artery
|
blood vessel that brings blood away from heart to body
|
|
|
|
Define Vein
|
Blood vessel that brings blood to the heart
|
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|
|
Define Capillary
|
Blood vessel that allows exchange of material from blood to heart and heart to blood
|
|
|
|
What are the 3 layers of blood vessels
|
1. tunica intima
2. tunica media 3. tunica externa |
|
|
|
What is felony murder?
|
Murder committed during certain felonies, which will constitute first degree murder.
**Felony must be distinct from the killing and death must be a foreseeable result. |
|
|
|
with which type of tissue is tunica media made?
|
circularly smooth muscle fibers and elastic connective tissue.
|
|
|
|
with which type of tissue is tunica externa made?
|
elastic connective tissue and collagen fibers.
|
|
|
|
Define Vasoconstriction
|
The lumen gets smaller as a result of tunica media contracting
|
|
|
|
Define Vasodilation
|
The lumen gets bigger because the tunica media is relaxing.
|
|
|
|
Define vasomotor fibers
|
nerve fibers received from the SNS to smooth muscle fibers
|
|
|
|
Name 3 chemicals that cause smooth muscle fibers to relax (vasodilation)
|
1. nitric oxide
2. hydrogen ions 3. lactic acid |
|
|
|
What is another name used for tunica externa?
|
tunica adventitia
|
|
|
|
What is the function of the tunica externa??
|
to provide support to the wall and to help anchor vessel in place.
|
|
|
|
Define Vasa Vasorum
|
Blood vessels that provide blood to the Blood vessel wall.
|
|
|
|
Into which 3 groups are arteries divided?
|
1. Elastic arteries
2. muscular arteries 3. Arterioles |
|
|
|
Define Elastic arteries
|
the largest of arteries that have thick walls.
|
|
|
|
What is the tunica media mostly composed of?
|
elastic connective tissue
|
|
|
|
What are elastic arteries able to do because of their elasticity?
|
they are able to expand and recoil
|
|
|
|
Why is recoiling important for elastic arteries?
|
Because recoiling continues to propel blood down the artery when the ventricle is not contracting
|
|
|
|
What are 4 examples that were mentioned when talking about elastic arteries?
|
1. aorta
2. pulmonary trunk 3. brachiocephalic artery 4. iliac artery |
|
|
|
How much of a role do elastic arteries play in vasodilation and vasoconstriction?
|
very little
|
|
|
|
Define Muscular arteries
|
medium and smaller sized arteries that are formed by branching of elastic arteries
|
|
|
|
What is the role of a muscular artery?
|
to deliver blood to specific body organs
|
|
|
|
Define arterioles
|
Smallest of arteries and are formed by branching muscular arteries
|
|
|
|
Which arteries feed directly into capillaries?
|
Arterioles
|
|
|
|
Which arteries are the most important in vasoconstriction and vasodilation?
|
Tunica media
|
|
|
|
Tunica media is almost exclusively which type of muscle?
|
Smooth muscle
|
|
|
|
Which arteries have a very significant role in controlling blood pressure?
|
arterioles
|
|
|
|
Which layer has less ability to recoil but uses vasoconstriction and vasodilation?
|
Tunica media in muscular arteries
|
|
|
|
Define Capillaries
|
Smallest of blood vessels whre lumen is big enough to let only one RBC through at a time.
|
|
|
|
The number of capillaries in any given tissue is directly related to what?
|
the metabolic activity of that tissue. for example, brain cells need more capillaries than osteoblasts do
|
|
|
|
What avascular tissue is in the body?
|
epithelium
|
|
|
|
Where does epithelium obtain blood?
|
From connective tissue capillaries
|
|
|
|
What are capillary walls designed for?
|
Filtration, osmosis, and diffusion
|
|
|
|
Define Capillary Bed
|
Group of capillaries between 10 and 100 that have formed from single arteriole
|
|
|
|
Which three groups divide capillaries?
|
1. continuous
2. fenestrated 3. sinusoid |
|
|
|
Which group do most capillaries fall into?
|
Continuous capillaries
|
|
|
|
Where are continuous capillaries found?
|
in the brain, lungs and muscle
|
|
|
|
Define Fenestrated
|
Slit-like opening
|
|
|
|
What does the fenestrated capillary allow for?
|
slightly larger molecules to pass through the capillary wall
|
|
|
|
Where are fenestrated capillaries found in the body?
|
sm. intestine, endocrine gland, kidneys
|
|
|
|
Define sinusoid capillaries
|
capillaries with lumens large and wall is irregular with some having fenestrations.
|
|
|
|
Where are sinusoid capillaries found in the body?
|
in the liver and spleen
|
|
|
|
What is the normal sequence of blood vessels that blood flows through?
|
Artery>capillary>vein>heart
|
|
|
|
Define Portal Vein
|
Vein that transports blood from one capillary bed to a second capillary bed without taking blood to heart first
|
|
|
|
Where do you find portal veins?
|
Liver and hypothalamus and pituitary gland
|
|
|
|
What happens to capillaries when they merge?
|
They go into venous circulation
|
|
|
|
Define Venules
|
veins formed when capillaries merge and drain capillary blood
|
|
|
|
Which veins have only the tunica sterna?
|
Venules
|
|
|
|
Venules are large enough only to let what wiggle through veins?
|
White blood cells
|
|
|
|
In veins, what is the thickest layer?
|
Tunica externa
|
|
|
|
What is present in the largest of veins?
|
a thin layer of smooth muscle on the tunica externa
|
|
|
|
Where are valves present in the veins in the body?
|
In the limbs by folds of tunica intima
|
|
|
|
Define Venous (or vascular) sinus
|
Vein that has thin endothelium, no smooth muscle, tunica media, and externa is formed by dense connective tissue.
|
|
|
|
Are veins under high or low pressure?
|
very low pressure
|
|
|
|
What are 4 factors that keep blood circulating?
|
1. Large lumen
2. valves 3. skeletal muscle pump 4. Respiratory system pump |
|
|
|
What is the skeletal system pump?
|
when the skeletal muscle contracts it puts pressure on vein
|
|
|
|
What is the respiratory system pump?
|
When diaphragm dome comes up after letting air out and puts pressure on veins
|
|
|
|
Define Anastomoses
|
Blood vessels that provide collateral circulation or blood flow to a particular location
|
|
|
|
Define Angiogenesis
|
Growth of new blood cells
|
|
|
|
Define Arterial pulse
|
an alternating expansion and recoil of arteries due to contraction and relaxation of the left ventricle (heartbeat)
|
|
|
|
Define Arteriosclerosis
|
Thickening of artery wall
|
|
|
|
Define Atherosclerosis
|
Plaque formation along artery wall
|
|
|
|
What happens to BP as lumen gets smaller?
|
it gets higher
|
|
|
|
What is the similar action that both arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis do?
|
Cause lumen to get smaller
|
|
|
|
Define Aneurysm
|
Thin or weakened spot in vessel wall
|
|
|
|
Define Varicose veins
|
occur when valves fail to work so blood falls backwards and pools, which causes the veins to expand.
|
|
|
|
Where do varicose veins most occur?
|
in superficial veins because they aren't completely enclosed in skeletal muscle so there is less pressure
|
|
|
|
What percentage of veins make up blood distribution?
|
60-65%
|
|
|
|
Which veins serve as blood reservoirs?
|
systemic veins
|
|
|
|
Define Venoconstriction
|
Constriction in veins with sympathetic stimulation
|
|
|
|
What are 3 mechanisms that allow blood to flow from capillary to capillary?
|
1. diffusion
2. transcytosis 3. bulk flow |
|
|
|
What is unique about the junctions in the blood brain barrier?
|
epithelial cells have tighter junctions
|
|
|
|
Define Transcytosis
|
Involves only a small number of molecules and moves large insoluble lipid molecules across a capillary wall
|
|
|
|
Define Bulk Flow
|
made up of filtration and reabsorption
|
|
|
|
Which direction does filtration move material?
|
out of the capillary
|
|
|
|
Which way does reabsorption move material?
|
back into the capillary
|
|
|
|
Which direction (pressure-wise) does bulk flow move?
|
from high to low pressure
|
|
|
|
Define Blood hydrostatic pressure
|
water pressure inside capillary that causes material to move OUT of capillary.
|
|
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Blood Osmotic Pressure
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Moves material INTO the capillary
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Define Interstitial hydrostatic pressure?
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Water pressure against the outside vessel wall. Moves material INTO capillary.
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Define Interstitial Osmotic pressure
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Created by the presence of sodium in the interstital compartment that causes material to move OUT of capillary
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Name the 2 filtration pressures
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1. blood hydrostatic pressure
2. interstitial osmotic pressure |
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Name the 2 reabsorption pressures
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1. blood osmotic pressure
2. interstitial hydrostatic pressure |
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What is Peff?
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Effective Filtration Pressure
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Define Effective Filtration Pressure
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Combination of pressures to determine which direction blood goes.
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Does the material at the arterial end of the capillary go into or out of the capillary?
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OUT
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Does the material at the venous end of the capillary go into or out of the capillary?
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INTO
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What absorbs the 15% of blood that didn't make it's way back to the blood?
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lymph capillary
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Define blood flow
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Volume of blood flowing through something in a given time period
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Define Blood Pressure
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The force per unit area exerted on a vessel wall by the contained blood.
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Which direction does blood pressure always move?
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from high pressure to low pressure.
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Blood pressure is in all capillaries but clinically which ones are they measuring?
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arteries
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Define resistance
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Opposition to blood flow and a measure of the amount of friction the blood encounters as it passes through the vessel
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Where does the most resistance in blood flow occur in the body?
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In peripheral vessels (arms and legs)
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Resistance in blood flow occurs because of which 3 factors?
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1. size of lumen
2. vessel length 3. blood viscosity |
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How is size of lumen related to the resistance?
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The larger the lumen, the less resistance
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Define Systemic Vascular Resistance
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Resistance offered by all the systemic blood vessels.
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Velocity of blood flow is________related to the cross sectional area of blood vessels
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inversely
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What does the slowness of the flow in capillaries guarantee?
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time to allow for blood exchange
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Which 2 factors does arterial blood pressure reflect?
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1. how much the elastic arteries close to the heart can be stretched
2. the volume of blood that is being forced into the arteries |
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What 2 measurement are involved in arterial blood pressure?
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1. systolic pressure
2. diastolic pressure |
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Define Systolic Pressure
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The pressure peak generated by the ventricles contracting
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Define Diastolic Pressure
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The pressure low generated by the ventricles dilating
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Venous blood pressure is relatively _______ and is a fairly ____ pressure.
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steady; low
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Define Venous Return to the Heart
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Blood returning to the heart via the coronary sinus, superior vena cava, and inferior vena cava
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Name 4 factors that maintain blood pressure
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1. cardiac output
2. blood volume 3. peripheral resistance 4. hormones |
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Define Cardiac Output
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Output of the left ventricle to the aorta per minute
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Define Vasomotor Center
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Regulates diameter of arterioles and is located in the medulla oblongata.
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Which hormone is secreted by the vasomotor fibers?
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Norepinephrine
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What happens to blood pressure as the vasomotor fibers secrete norepinephrine?
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it increases
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Name 3 factors that modify the vasomotor center
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1. chemoreceptors
2. higher brain center 3. Baroreceptors |
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What is another name for baroreceptors?
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pressoreceptors
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Define Carotid Sinus Reflex
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Baroreceptors are located in carotid artery and monitor BP
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Define Aortic Reflex
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Baroreceptors located in the aorta to monitor systemic blood pressure.
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What happens to the vasomotor system as blood pressure goes down?
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it gets stimulated by the blood
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What happens to the vasomotor system as blood pressure goes up?
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it gets stimulated by the blood
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What are the three chemoreceptors that help maintain blood pressure?
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1. H+
2. CO2 3. O2 |
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Define acidosis
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too much H+ in the blood
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Define Hypercapnia
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too much CO2 in the blood
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Define Hypoxia
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Too little O2
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What is considered the higher brain center?
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the cerebrum
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Why do anger and fear increase BP?
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Because both stimulate the vasomotor system
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Which nervous system does the vasomotor center use?
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the SNS
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What is the relationship between blood pressure and blood volume?
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direct relationship
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What are 6 hormones that affect blood pressure?
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1. Epinephrine
2. ANP 3. BNP 4. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone 5. ADH 6. Erythropoietin |
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Where does epinephrine cause vasoconstriction?
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in the arterioles serving skin and abdominopelvic organs
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Where does epinephrine cause vasodilation?
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in the arterioles serving skeletal and cardiac muscle
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From where is ANP secreted and in response to what?
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Secreted by certain cells in the wall of the atria in response to high blood pressure
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From where is BNP secreted and in response to what?
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Secreted by certain cells in the wall of the ventricles in response to high blood pressure
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Name 2 ways that BNP and ANP reduce blood pressure
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1. they cause vasodilation
2. they cause kidney to excrete more water into urine and more sodium into urine. |
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What is another name for Antidiuretic Hormone?
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Vasopressin
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Which structure makes ADH?
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The hypothalamus and posterior pituitary
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ADH tells _____ to conserve______
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kidney; water
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Define Renin
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An enzyme secreted by the kidney in response to a drop in blood pressure
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Define Angiotensinogen
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Plasma protein made by the liver
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Define Aldosterone
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Hormone made by adrenal cortex that functions in telling kidney to reabsorb Sodium ions into blood
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what is the active form of angiotensin?
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angiotensin 2
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Define Erythropoietin
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A hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to a drop in oxygen
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Define Autoregulation of blood flow
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an automatic adjustment of blood flow to a specific tissue in response to that tissue's need at the time.
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Does nitric oxide vasodilate or vasoconstrict?
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vasodilate
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Define Enothelins
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made by endothelial cells and peptides, they are potent vasoconstricting molecules
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Name 3 inflammatory chemicals that are vasodilating and release locally
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1. histamine
2. prostaglandins 3. kinins |
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Define Perfusion
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Blood flow through body tissues that is responsible to delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells and removal of waste material from body cells.
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Define Shock
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Failure of the cardiovascular system to deliver enough oxygen and nutrients to meet body demand.
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How is shock characterized?
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inadequate blood flow to body tissues
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Define Hypovalemic shock
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not enough volume of blood
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Define cardiogenic shock
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poor heart function
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Define Vascular Shock
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Caused by incorrect vasodilation
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Define Anaphylactic Shock
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Histamine is released body-wide and a lot of vasodilation occurs.
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Name 4 homeostatic mechanisms to combat shock
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1. SNS
2. ADH 3. Angiotensin 2 4. Local vasodilators |
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WHat is included in the pulmonary circuit?
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Deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart and moves into lungs.
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What is included in the Systemic circuit?
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Oxygenated blood return to the left side of the heart
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What two veins form to make the hepatic portal vein?
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The mesenteric vein and the splenic vein
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What are the 4 subdivisions of the circulatory systems?
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1. coronary circulation
2. cerebral circulation 3. hepatic circulation 4. fetal circulation |
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What is important to mention when talking of cerebral circulation?
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Circle of Willis
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What is the role of the hepatic artery?
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It brings oxygen rich blood to the liver
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What is the function of the hepatic portal vein?
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to carry deoxygenated, rich-in-nutrient blood to the liver
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What is the function of the hepatic vein?
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TO drain deoxygenated blood from the liver to the inferior vena cava
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What are the 3 vessels of the umbilical cord?
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1 umbilical vein and 2 umbilical arteries
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What is the function of the umbilical vein?
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to transport blood from the placenta to the fetus (high in O2)
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What is the function of the umbilical arteries?
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TO transport blood from the fetus to the placenta
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Where does the umbilical vein enter the fetus?
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at the umbilicus
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At the liver, what are the 2 vessels that branch?
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branch that merges with hepatic portal vein to inferior vena cava and then branch that goes around the liver through the ductus venosus to the inferior vena cava
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Define Foramen ovale
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hole in the interatrial septum that permits blood to go right over the left atrium if already oxygenated
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Define ductus arteriosus
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blood vessel between pulmonary trunk and aorta
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