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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the theory of self-organization? |
- Spontaneous order arises from a system of disorder. - An overall order of process arises from local interactions between lower levels of the system. - In biology the pattern of global systems are emerge from interactions among the lower levels of the system. |
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What was the first known discovered virus? |
- Tobacco mosaic virus. - Discovered in 1890s through filtering. - The virulent material was not chemical because it was replicating. - Not seen until electron microscope. |
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What is a virus made up of? |
- DNA/RNA with a protein coat/capsid. (Never both) - Viruses are very specific to the host and sometimes the capsid can have a lipid envelope (when they have animal hosts) |
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How are viruses classified? |
- By size, appearance, and genetic material (single vs. double strand) |
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Virus shapes? |
- Helical - rod - icosahedron: "square circle" with glycolated spikes - complex: (not symmetrical) - spherical |
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What is a bacterophage? |
- A virus that infects bacteria. |
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Lytic cycle vs lysogenic cycle |
- The lytic cycle involves the viral lysis of the cell membrane and attaches to the host cell. - The lysogenic cycle involves the splicing of phage DNA into the host genome (transformation), and the replication/intigration of prophage genetic material. |
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What type of bacteria become virulent because of phage conversion through transduction? |
- V. cholerae and they become virulent through viral transduction. After transduction they produce cholera toxins. |
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Examples of viral induced diseases? How are flu viruses distinguished? |
- Smallpox, herpes, chicken pox, and the flu - ABC - "based off of rna/protein spikes" (A infects humans) - H/N: Hemagglutinin (H) allows the virus to bind to and enter a specific cell. This is usually what your immune system targets, so changes to this molecule allow the virus to avoid detection. Neuraminidase (N) allows the newly created viruses to exit a cell and spread the infection. |
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What makes it hard to develop flu vaccinations to fight pandemics? |
- The variation of H&N spikes |
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What is an emerging virus? Examples? |
- A virus that spreads from one species to another and causes disease. -Ebola - Zika: Zika originated in primates and spread from Africa to India to the Americas... similar to west nile and yellow fever... transmitted by mosquitos... Zika is an RNA virus and is isohedral. |
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How can viruses trigger cancer? |
- Altering the genetic properties of human cells and trigger oncogene expression. |
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How do viruses plant their RNA genomes into DNA? |
- Using reverse transcriptase to serve as a template in assembling, and making DNA strands in host. |
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What are prions and what are they responsible for? |
- "Infectous proteins" - Don't contain nucleic acids - Responsible for mad cow, kuru, scrape (sheep) - Responsible for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies: also known as prion diseases, are a group of progressive conditions that affect the brain (encephalopathies) and nervous system of many animals, including humans. |
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What are viroids and what are they responsible for? |
- Viroids are naked RNA molecules that induce disease and infect plants. |
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What are the 2 domains of Prokaryotes? |
- Bacteria (also known as Eubacteria) - Archaebacteria (many of which are extremeophiles) |
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How big are most prokaryotes? |
-Varies most are less than one nano-meter in diameter. |
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What is a biofilm? |
- A biofilm is any group of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often these cells adhere to a surface. These adherent cells are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance |
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How do most prokaryotes divide? |
Binary fission: Cell grows to twice its size and divides. |
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Describe the chromosomes of prokaryotes. |
- A single circular single chromosome found in the nucleoid region. - Often have plasmids. |
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Describe the cell walls of prokaryotes. |
- All prokaryotes have cell walls. It helps them maintain shape and withstand hypotonic environments. - Bacteria have a peptidoglycan cell wall. (Network, Looks like an onion bag) - Archaea lack a peptidoglycan wall. They may have a similar molecule. |
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Describe the DNA replication and gene expression of prokaryotes. |
- Bacteria and archaea both have single ORIs. - Archaea DNA replication and gene expression is more similar to prokaryotes. |
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Prokaryote cell shapes? |
- Bacillus - rod shaped - Coccus - sphere - Spirillum - helical |
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Describe Gram-staining. Why is it only meaningful for eubacteria and not archea? |
- Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer and gram stain purple. (Also contain lipoteichoic and teichoic acid which extend from the membrane to the outside and serve as antigens) - Gram negative contain less peptidoglycan and stain pink because their outer-membrane is made of liposaccrides which makes them resistant to antibiotics. - Archea don't have walls made of peptidoglycan and these microorganisms yield widely varying responses that do not follow their phylogenetic groups. |
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What is the S-layer in bacteria? |
- Common type of cell wall. - Rigid outer layer found in both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. - Found outside on top of peptidoglycan layer in gram positive. - Found under LPS in gram negative |
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What is the function of a capsule in bacteria? |
- geletanous layer - aids in attatchment - protects from the immune system |
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What are the flagellum in prokaryotes made of? Eukaryotes? |
Flagellin and tubulin respectively. |
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In what types of bacteria are are pilli found? What do they aid in? |
- Short hairs that aid in attachment and conjugation. - Only found in gram negative bacteria |
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What are endospores? Examples? |
- A thick wall made around of the genome of a prokaryote during times of stress. - Anthrax, tetnis, and botulism. |
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What prokaryotic structure aids in respiration and photosynthesis? |
- An invaginated region of the plasma membrane increase surface area. |
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Which region of the cell contains prokaryotic DNA? |
- The nucleoid region of the cell contains the genetic material and sometimes plasmids. |
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Describe the characteristics of prokaryotic ribosomes. |
- They're smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes. - They differ in protein and RNA content - Targeted by some anti biotics |
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What is an 'R' plasmid? What species of bacteria do they pay an important role in? |
- A plasmid that codes for antibiotic resistance. - Staph |
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What is a virulence plasmid? Example? |
- A plasmid that codes for pathogenic traits. - Example Enterobacteriaceae like salmonella. |
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What does Nitrogen fixation entail? Example of those that perform it. |
- Nitrogen fixation reduces N2 to NH3 - Anabaena in aquatic enviornments - Rhizobium in soil |
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What are the 3 types of symbiosis?
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- Mutualism: mutually benefical for all those involved (nitrogen fixing bacteria on plant roots, celluase-producing - Commensalism: one benefits - Parasitism- one benefits and the other is harmed |
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What allows for prokaryote diversity? Examples of the process? |
- Horozontal gene transfer - Conjugation - transfer of plasmids through pillus intermediate - Transformation - uptake of foregin DNA/chromosomes - Transduction - spread of genome through viral delivery |
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What is metagenomics? |
- Study of genetic materials of an entire system. |
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What organelles come from endosymbiotic theory? |
- Plastids (self replicating) like Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
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How are prokaryotes classified on the most basic level? |
- Autotrophs: acquire nutrients from basic materials and fix them. - Heterotrophs: acquire energy from breaking down other organisms. |
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Name 4 different bacterial metabolic pathways... what do they require? |
Photoautotrophs: acquire carbon from CO2 and use enegry from the sun to reduce carbon. Photohetrotrophs: use light for energy, but cannot use carbon dioxide as their sole carbon source. Chemolithotrophs: Use energy from inorganic molecules and use it reduce carbon Chemoorganotrophs heterotrophs: use energy from oxidizing molecules molecules for energy source but requires organic molecules because they can't fixate CO2 |
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Obligate aerobes? Obligate Anaerobes? Facultative anaerobes? |
- Obligate aerobes: require oxygen for respiration - obligate anerobes: 02 is poisonus. Some use anerobic respiration or fermentation. - faculatative anerobes: can survive with or without O2. |
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Example of prokaryotes that use nitrogen fixation? What allows these products to re-enter the enviornment? |
- Diazatrophs that convert elemental nitrogen to ammonia using an enzyme called nitrogenase. - Denitrifying bacteria break down nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia and allow elemental nitrogen to re-enter the soil. |
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What holds biofilms together? |
- Glycocalyx |
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What are the three most common extremophiles? |
- Thermophiles: thrive in high heat - Halophiles: thrive in high salt content - Methanogens: microorganisms that produce methane as a metabolic byproduct under anoxic (areas depleted of oxygen) conditions |
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Evidence of endosymbiosis? |
- Mitochondria (were originally gram positive eubacteria), chloroplasts (originally cyanobacteria) and plastids. - Multiple membranes - Organelles have their own DNA which is similar to bacteria. - The ribosomes inside bacteria are similar to the ribosomes inside mitochondria - Mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce at different time in cell cycle. - Mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce using binary fission. |
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Why do some plastids have secondary membranes? |
- Because two organisms were engulfed in a chain. - Example: Brown algae engulfed green algae who were engulfed by a larger organism. |
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What is the most diverse of the 4 groups in the eukaryotic kingdom? |
- Protists |
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How many protists phyla are they? Monophyletic groups? |
- 15 major phyletic groups comprise 7 monophyletic groups. |
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Some protists can form ECMs made of what? |
Silica |
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What is a cyst? |
- Resistant outer covering that aids in disease transmission of protoza (and other single cell organisms) - Protozoan parasites, are often exposed to very harsh conditions at various stages in their life cycle. |
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What are the types of psuedopedia? |
- Lobopods: large and blunt feet - Filopods: thin and branching feet - Axopods: thin and long feet |
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What are the types of protist reproduction? |
- Budding - Mitosis - schizogony: (cell division occurs after several nuclear divisions). |
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What are "excavata"? |
- Major eukarotic supergroup - Manyexcavates have unusualflagella and altered mitochondriathat cannot generate ATP. - Have an "excovated groove" on one side? |
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What order of excavata cause disease? Examples? Why are they difficult to treat? |
- Trypanosomes - Sleeping sickness caused by the tsetse fly. - The repeatedly change their protective coat. |
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What are Alveolata? What comprises them? |
-they all have a system of saclike structures ("alveoli") on the inner surface of their plasma membrane as well as - Dinoflagellates: some are luminicent, cause red/tide and O2 depleteion, don't have histones. - Apicomplexans: form spores that infect animals, apial complex (organelles at one side of the organism that assist with cell invasion), complex life cycle, spread by mosquitos - Ciliates large number of cilia arranged in rows or spirals, tough flexible pellicle covering, micro (reproduction) vs macro (metabolism) nuclei, food and water vacoules |
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Examples of apixomplexan? |
- plasmodium: cause malaria - toxoplasma gondii: cause illness in those who are immunosuppressed but present in most people. |
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Examples of ciliates? |
- Stramenopila: brown alge, diatoms, oomycetes (ekarotic fungi) that have small hairs on their flagella. |
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Why are brown alge special? |
- They have diploid vs haplod life cycles. |
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Facts about Oomycetes? |
- Water molds - Were once considered fingi - 2 unequal flagella - Undergo sexual reproduction - Responsible for Irish Potato famine |
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Life history and embryonic development? |
Meiosis, Gametes, Fertilization, Zygote, Morula, Blastula, Gastrula, Larva/Fetus, Juvenile, Adult |
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What does bilateral symmetry lead to? |
Bilaterial symmetry: anterior/posterior, dorsal/ventral • Leads to cephalization |
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What is tagmatization? |
- The evolutionary process that grouped segments together. |
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What are the defining qualities of acoelomates, pseudocoelomates (blastcelomates), and eucoelomates (colemates) |
- Acelomates have a solid body with no cavity. - Psuedocelomates have a cavity that's only partially lined with mesodermal tissue. - Euclomates have a cavity that is fully lined with mesodermal tissue. This allows for evolution of more complex digestive tract and storage of internal gametes. |
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Development of protostomes? |
- "Mouth-First" - Spiral cleavage which results in determinate development |
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Deuterstome development? |
- "Anus first" - Radial cleavage with indetrminate development |
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Characteristics of sponges |
- No body symmetry - No body cavity (water flows through the sponge body) - There is cellular organization but no true cell layers as a result of no hox genes. - Cellular plasticity - Choanocytes: collar cels with flagellum for pumping water |
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Humans are a part of what monophyletic group? |
Unikont |
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What classes makes up the psylum Cnidaria? |
"zoas" - hydrozoa: hydras - scyphozoa: "true" jellyfish/sea jellyfish - Staurozoa: star jellies - Cubozoa: box jellies, sea nettles - anthozoa: sea anemones, coral |
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Characteristics of the cnidarians? |
- Radial symmetry - Tissue level organization - Nemocysts - "stinging cells" - No true celomic body cavity... diploblast - No execratory system or circulatory system |
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Characteristics of Hydras? |
- Alteration of generation - Polymorphic can either reproduce asexually in colonies or through sexual medusa phase... both are diploid |
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Features of ctenophores? |
- They don't have nematocysts - They have cilia arranged in 8 groups called combs - Diploblasts "no true cell layers" |
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What classes make up the Platyhelminthes phylum? |
Flatworms -Turbellaria: "free-living" planarians - Trematodia: flukes - Cestoda: tapeworms |
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Characteristics of Platyhelminthes (flatworms)? |
- Bilateral symmetry - Dorso-venterally flattened (compressed along its dorsal 'upper' and ventral 'lower' sides) - Organ level organization - Acolemonate body cavity - Digestion system with mouth and no anus - No circulatory system and excretes through diffusion |
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Characteristics of the class Tubellaria? What types of animals make up this class? |
- All "free-living" planarians non-parasitic - Pharynx for feeding - Hermophradites - Regenerative - Ciliated ventral surface and gliding propel forward |
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Characteristics of the Trematoda class? |
Flukes - Parasitic (mostly internal) - Attachment suckers for feeding - Reproduce sexually - Complex life cycles with multiple hosts (ie - river flukes live in human bile ducts and lay eggs that are pooped out and eaten by snails) |
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Characteristics of Cestoda class? |
Tapeworms - parasitic - scolex head with attachment suckers and hooks on head - sexually mature segments (called proglottids) with each segment containing an independent digestive system and reproductive tract. - complex life cycle with multiple hosts |
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Why is the Phylum Nematoda (round-worms) now with ecdysozoa (arthropods)? |
- Because they shed |
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Characteristics of pseudocoelomates? |
- "False body cavity" thats simple and partially lined with mesodermal tissue. - All psuedocolemotes are protostomes. - Developed organs but no circulatory system |
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Examples of nematoda we went over in class? |
- Trichinella (Pork worm) - Dracunculus (symbol of medecine) - Elephantiasis is a result of nematodic infection |
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What phylums make up psuedocolemates? |
- Nematoda - Rotifera microscopic (wheel animals) |
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Characteristics of molluscs? |
- Eucoelomate organization (true body cavity) - Members of the lophotrochoza have trochophore larva: which have two bands of cilia around their middle and look like plankton (protostomes and molecular based) - Soft bodied, some have hard shells. - Radula - Muscular foot, mantle, open circulatory system |
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Classes of mollusca? |
- Polyplacophora: "many shells" chitons - Bivalvia: clams, scallops, oysters - Gastropodia: snails and slugs - Cephalopoda: octopus/squids |
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Characteristics of Polyplacophora? |
- 8 plated shells - muscular foot |
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Characteristics of bivalvia? |
Clams oysters scallops - Muscular foot that's used for burrowing - Bivalve shell - Layered shell - Gills used for filter feeding - NO RADULA - Byssal threads: protein threads extending from foot that allow movement/anchoring. Allow colonies to stick together. |
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Characteristics of gastropods? |
Snails and slugs - Shells that elongate and coil as they trow - Well developed head - Most diverse of phylum - Egg masses/cases - Actively move - Veliger larva (synaptamorphy of class): trochophore stage ----> veliger larva (look like baby snails) - Nudibranchs (sea slugs): secondary loss of shell, evolved from sea snails |
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Characteristics of cephalopods |
octopus and squids nautaloids, octopods, decapods - ancestral shells are lost or compeltely reduced - tentacles are exadaptation of foot - the radula is contained within a beak jaw - they have developed nervous systems which is unusual in mollusks - developed vision - chromatophores in all classes except nautiloids |
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Classes within Annelid phylum? |
"Segmentented worms" - Oligocha (Earthworms) - Polychaeta (marine worms) - Hirudinea (leeches) |
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Characteristics of annelids phylum? |
- Euclomates - Bilaterally symmetric - True organs - Trochophore larva |
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Arthropodia classes? |
- Trilobitomorpha: Trilobites - Chelicerata (sub-phylum): - Crusteans - Insects |
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Characteristics of Arthropods? |
- segments that are fused into functional organs (tagmitization) - molting - nauplius larva: free-swimming, planktonic larva of most marine and some freshwater crustaceans - euclomates - open circulatory systems - highly developed segmented nervous systems - respitory systems |
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Chatacteristic of Chelicerata? |
- fusion of the head and thorax - defined by pointed appendages that grasp the food in place of the chewing mandibles most other arthropods have. |
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Classes within Chelicerata? |
- Eurypterida (mostly extinct sea scorpions) - Merostomata (horseshoe crabs) - Arachnids - Pycnogonida (sea spiders) |
