Stress, Coping And Health

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Stress as a(an)…

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• eliciting stimulus – “I am experiencinga lot of stress”

• response – “I’m feeling stressed”

• Stress is a person-situation interactionOR a “transaction between organismand the environment”

Generally:

• All types of stress require that we adapt

• greater imbalance between demandsand resources = greater stress

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‘transaction’ means

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Stress is a pattern of responding:

• Cognitively

• Physiologically

• Behaviourally

Any circumstance that is perceived asthreatening or challenging and requirescoping

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What are the key types of Stressors?

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• Catastrophes - Unexpected & large scale

• Major negative events - Require majoradaptation

• Microstressors - Daily hassles/frustrations

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Generally, stressors vary in terms of how

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• Intense/severe

• long they last/chronic

• predictable

• controllable

Greatest impact on health (physical &psychological) if intense, long-lasting,unpredictable, uncontrollable

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Stress as a Pattern Overview

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• Cognitive Appraisal - demands, resources, consequences & meaning

• Physiological response - Sympathetic arousal & stress hormones

• Coping and task behaviours - Behavioural responses tostressors

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Elements of Cognitive appraisal

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1. What are the demands? (primary appraisal)

2. What resources do I have (to cope)?(secondary appraisal)

3. Consequences of failing to cope?

4. Personal meaning of consequences?

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Impact on Physical Health:Elements of Physiological Response

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General Adaptation Syndrome

• Phase 1 – alarm: mobilize resources

• Phase 2 – resistance: Coping with stressor

• Phase 3 - exhaustion: Reserves depleted

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How is stress related to psychologicalhealth?

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• Catastrophic stressors can have long-termpsychological impact on individuals’ lives (e.g.,natural disasters, flooding, hurricanes, war)

• E.g., anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress**Some evidence for impact on cognitivefunctioning as well

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Impact on physical health

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Increased risk of

• physical illness and even death

• health problems several years laterIn general, the more major stressors the greaterthe risk of physical illness

** “Broken heart syndrome” – TakotsuboCardiomyopathy (Sato et al, 1990)

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Increased risk arises from

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• Body’s stress response (hormones)

• Reduced immune system functioning

• Health-impairing behaviours (e.g., not taking care of health, etc.)

• Hormone (cortisol) impact on hippocampus (memory problems)

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FACTORS that influence coping with stress

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In general, there are:

• Vulnerability factors = those that make usmore susceptible to the impact of stressors

• Protective factors = environmental/personalresources help us to cope with stressors

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Social Support = PROTECTIVE

Types of support:

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Types of support:

• Emotional – address the EMOTIONS of stressor

• Appraisal – helps us EVALUATE the stressor

• Informational – provide us withINFORMATION to cope

• Instrumental – helps us DO things to cope

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Social Support is effective because…

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• Boosts immune system

• Associated with greater sense of identity andmeaning

• Releases Negative Emotions

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Cognitive Factors = PROTECTIVE

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• Hardiness: illustrated by commitment,control, and challenge – the 3 C’s

• Coping self-efficacy: perception that you havesufficient resources to cope

• Optimism: positive affect, positive outlook forthe future

• All may be linked to increased immunefunctioning

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Personality traits – PROTECTIVE

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• Type B – relaxed, agreeable, easy-going

• Conscientiousness – less likely to engage in risky behaviours, drink, smoke; more likely to eat balanced diet, exercise regularly

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Personality traits –VULNERABILITY

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• Type A – aggressive, time-conscious,competitive, ambitious, hostile

• Type C – ‘opposite’ of A – sociable, relaxedBUT inhibit negative emotions

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Physiological Reactivity –VULNERABILITY

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• Pattern and intensity of physiological response to stress

• More intense and prolonged responses result in greater risk to the negative impact of stress

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Physiological Toughness - PROTECTIVE

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2 elements:

• Lower level of cortisol activity at rest & lowerlevel of response to stress

• Lower level of catecholamines at rest & strongbut quick response (and return to normal) tostressor

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Additional factors that make us morevulnerable to stress?

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• Bottling up/disregarding emotions

• Isolating oneself

• Pessimistic attitude

• Poor eating habits (high fat diet)

• Insufficient rest, poor sleep habits

• Drug/alcohol abuse, smoking

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Typical Stress Coping Strategies

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• Problem-Focused - confront and deal with problemdirectly

• Social Support - turn to others for assistance andemotional support

• Emotion-Focused -emphasis on managing theemotional response(CONSIDER CONTROLLABILITY)

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Differences in strategy use?

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• Both men and women use problem-focused but

• Men favour problem-focused approach

• Women favour social support and emotion focused approach

• Western Cultures favour problem-focused

• Eastern Cultures favour social support and emotion-focused

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What is personality?

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Distinctiveness or uniqueness

Consistent over time & situations

Personality = “distinctive and enduringways of thinking, feeling, and acting”

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These “thoughts, feelings, & actions” are:

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Unique to each person

caused by “internal factors”

Fit together in a distinct fashion to direct behaviour

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Theoretical Perspectives on Personality

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 Different theoretical perspectives explainwhat personality IS and HOW it functions

How well does each help us to understand‘individual differences’?

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Psychodynamic Theory of personality, emphasizes

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The Unconscious directs our behaviours

 psychic energy needs release

 Forms of release: sex & aggression

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Different ‘types’ of mental events:

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Conscious – awareness of currentenvironment

Preconscious – information just below thelevel of awareness

 **Unconscious – information well belowawareness level

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Levels of Consciousness - digrm

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Structures (parts) of personality:

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 Id – pleasure seeking & irrational portion

 Superego – moral component

 Ego – component that exists in reality;maintains control over id and superego

 Potential for psychic conflict

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The EGO is

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 constantly working for balance

Concerned about challenges of reality

Challenges of impulse control

Anxiety results

when anxiety cannot be managed, defence mechanisms result (to distort reality)

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Ego uses Defense Mechanisms to cope with anxiety

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Defense mechanisms -> protection fromanxiety through self-deception,

Displacement – divert emotions to safe alternative

Reaction formation – exhibit opposite feelings

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Is psychodynamic theory useful?

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 Propositions are hard to test (e.g., peoplebehave lovingly rather than aggressively)

Reification of personality components

Conception of ‘unconscious’ has merit

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Humanistic Perspective (e.g., Carl Rogers) ofpersonality says…

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We are directed by forces within us that lead us toward self actualization (greatest potential)

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Rogers – personality and the “self”

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 Personality stems from conscious eventsexperienced by the ‘self’

 Organized, consistent set of beliefs

 Develops through life experiences

 Influences/directs perceptions & behaviour

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Rogers – self and congruence

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Concept of self is consistent over time

Helps us to understand who we are

 Goal maintain consistency and congruencebetween self-concept and experience

 E.g. congruence – I think of myself as kindand I am kind to others

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Rogers – maintaining congruence

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Incongruence = anxiety

When faced with incongruence, one might:

Adjust self-concept OR

Maintain congruence by:

Distorting reality (or reinterpreting) OR

acting in ways to be consistent with ‘self’

Well-adjusted people modify self-concept

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Adjusted or not -digrm

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Innate need for positive regard

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 Unconditional positive regard – worth orvalue despite actions and foibles (fromothers & from oneself)

Conditional positive regard – value onlyunder certain circumstances

 UPR = healthy development of the self

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Research on the self shows:

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 Greater self-esteem is associated with:

 More effective communication with others,happier lives, greater achievement

 Males = females on GSE but may differ on‘domain specific’ self-esteem

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Value of Humanistic theory?

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Too much personal report emphasis?

What are self-actualizing behaviours?

VALUE = ideal vs. perceived self (as markers in therapy)

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Focus for TRAIT researchers

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 Try to determine traits that help to distinguish between individuals

 Determine those traits that can predict behaviour

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“Historical” examples of Trait theories

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Allport proposed almost 18,000

How is the # of traits condensed?

Factor Analysis – find clusters

Central traits? Secondary traits?

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“Historical” examples of Trait theories

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Other theorists have proposed specificnumbers, e.g.,

Raymond Cattell said 16 and developedthe 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire

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Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors

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McCrae & Costa argued for 5 traits

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 Openness

 Conscientiousness

 Extraversion

 Agreeableness

 Neuroticism

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Eysenck’s (biological) trait theory ofpersonality?

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Emphasized 2 (3) key dimensions

Extraversion - Introversion

Stability – Instability

(Psychoticism – self-control)

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Eysenck’s theory – biological influence?

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 biological differences = personalities differences:

 Extraversion/introversion – brain arousal

 Stability/instability – suddenness of autonomic arousal

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Value of Trait Theories?

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Has provided us with idea of how toidentify, classify and measure personality

Currently insufficient emphasis on theinteractions of traits

 Most theories only DESCRIBE personality

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Social Cognitive Perspective –key concepts

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 Emphasis on internal AND external influences on personality (combined)

 Reciprocal determinism – personality is influenced by the interactions between a person, his/her behaviours, and the environment

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Example of S-C Theory: Albert Bandura’s theory of personality?

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 Key concept = self-efficacy = perception that youcan behave in a way that leads to desired outcomes

 4 factors create differences in self-efficacy:performance experiences, observational learning,verbal persuasion, emotional arousal

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Bandura’s 4 factors influencing self-efficacy

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 Performanceexpectations – previoussuccesses & failures

 Observational learning –observing others like you

 Verbal persuasion –messages from others

 Emotional arousal –excitement or fear

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Value of S-C Theories?

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Have strong scientific foundations (combination of behavioural & cognitive perspectives)

 Effectively established constructs that can be defined and assessed

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How can personality be measured?

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 Structured interviews – standard q’s + behav

 Behavioural assessment – details of behav

Remote behaviour sampling – ‘on-line’ or ‘real time’ measure

Reports/ratings by others – chars & behav

 Personality Scales – standardized/objective

 Projective Tests –ambiguous stimuli  Personal websites – preferences, interests, etc

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Sample Projective Stimuli

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Projecting patterns and stories that reflect the self

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MMPI Profile

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 Normal onscale = 50

 65 = ‘clinicallysignificant’

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Theories & Assessment ‘match’

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Theory

Provides framework

Assessment

Provides ‘tools

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Who uses which tools?

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 Psychodynamic = projective techniques

Humanistic = self-report measures

 Social-cognitive = behavioural assessments

 Biological = physiological measurements

 Trait theorists = inventories (MMPI, NEOPI)