Spring Frosh Py 1000 Exam 1

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behaviorism

Back 1

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

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humanistic psychology

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historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

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cognitive neuroscience

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the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

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psychology

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the science of behavior and mental processes

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behavior

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anything an organism does - any action we can observe and record

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mental processes

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the internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior

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Nature-nurture issue

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the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

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natural selection

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the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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levels of analysis

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the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

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biopsychosocial approach

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an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social cultural levels of analysis

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psychology's current perspectives

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neuroscience
evolutionary
behavior genetics
psychodynamics
behavioral
cognitive
social-cultural

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basic research

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pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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applied research

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scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

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counseling psychology

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branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well being

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clinical psychology

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a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

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psychiatry

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a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

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positive psychology

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the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

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community psychology

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a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

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testing effect

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enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

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SQ2R

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a study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

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critical thinking

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thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
helps clear the colored lenses of our biases

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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informed consent

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an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

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debriefing

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the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

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scientific method

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a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

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theory

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in science, an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behavior or events

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hypothesis

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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal underlying behavior principles

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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survey

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a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
-looks at many cases in less depth

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population

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all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

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random sample

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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correlation

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a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other

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correlation coefficient

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a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
helps figure out how closely they vary and how well one predicts the other

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scatterplot

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a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

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experiment

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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

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experimental group

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in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

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control

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in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment, contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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double-blind procedure

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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

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placebo effect

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(Latin: "I shall please") experimental results caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

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independent variable

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the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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confounding variable

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a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
-random assignment controls for this

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dependent variable

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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

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mode

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most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

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mean

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the arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

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median

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the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

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range

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the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

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standard deviation

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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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normal curve

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a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

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statistical significance

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a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

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Wilhelm Wundt

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(person) established the first psychology lab at the University of Leipzig, Germany
1879- machine measured the time lapse between people hearing a ball hit a platform and their pressing a telegraph key

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early schools of thought

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structuralism
functionalism

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Edward Bradford Titchener

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(person) used introspection to search for the mind's structural elements

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William James

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(person) thought it would be more fruitful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings

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Mary Whiton Calkins

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(person) pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association in 1905

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Margaret Floy Washburn

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(person) first woman to receive a psychology PhD, synthesized animal behavior research in "The Animal Mind"
Second female APA president in 1921

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John B. Watson

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(person) championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert"
dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as the "scientific study of observable behavior"

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two main forces into the 1960s

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behaviorists
Freudian psychologists

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Freudian Psychology

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emphasized the ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior

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cognitive revolution

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led the field back to its early interest in mental processes, such as the importance of how our mind processes and retains information

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B.F. Skinner

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(person) a leading behaviorist, he rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior

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Sigmund Freud

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(person) the controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity's self-understanding

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Plato

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(person) assumed we inherit character and intelligence and that certain ideas are inborn

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Aristotle

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(person) said that there is nothing in the mind that does not first come in from the external world through the sense

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John Locke

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(person) argued that the mind is a blank state

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René Descartes

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(person) believed some ideas are innate

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Charles Darwin

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(person) argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies

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biological influences

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natural selection of adaptive traits
genetic predispositions responding to environment
brain mechanisms
hormonal influences

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psychological influences

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learned fears and other learned expectations
emotional responses
cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations

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social-cultural influences

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presence of others
cultural, societal, and family expectations
peer and other group influences
compelling models (such as media)

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psychology's subfields

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basic research
applied research
counseling psychology
clinical psychology
psychiatry
positive psychology
community psychology

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3 phenomena that illustrate why we can't rely on intuition and common sense

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hindsight bias
judgmental overconfidence
tendency to perceive patterns in random events

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perceiving order in random events

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in our natural eagerness to make sense of our world, we are prone to perceive patterns

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culture matters

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shapes our behavior
influences our standards of promptness and frankness

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2 issues with animal testing

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1) whether it is right to place the well-being of humans above that of animals
2) what safeguards should protect the well-being of animals in research

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ethics code - APA

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1) obtain potential participants' informed consent
2) protect them from harm and discomfort
3) keep info about individual participants confidential
4) fully debrief people

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overconfidence error

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tend to be more confident than accurate

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coincidence error

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mistakenly perceiving order in random events

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scientific attitude

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curious, skeptical, humble

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a theory is useful if it…

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1) organizes a range of self-reports and observations
2) implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications

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can test hypotheses and refine theories using…

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descriptive methods, correlational methods, and experimental methods

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professionals describe people through

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case studies
naturalistic observation
surveys and interviews

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measures of central tendency

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mode
mean
median

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measures of variation

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range
standard deviation
normal curve

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3 principles for when an observed difference is reliable

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1) representative samples are better than biased samples
2) less variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
3) more cases are better than fewer

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statistical significance

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when sample averages are reliable and when the difference between them is relatively large
the odds of its occurring by chance, if no real effect exists, are less than 5%
indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance. says nothing of the importance of the result

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nomothetic

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data that refers to large populations

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ideographic

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data that refers to individuals/cases

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descriptive methods
(examples)

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the case study
the survey
naturalistic observation

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correlation methods
(examples)

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correlation and causation
illusory correlation
perceiving order in random events

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experimentation methods
(examples)

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exploring cause and effect
evaluating therapies
independent and dependent variables