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120 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is Consciousness? |
Moment-to-moment awareness of ourselves and our environment. It is: -Subjective and private -Dynamic -Self-Reflective -Connected with our selective attention |
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Key Info about the Psychodynamic Perspective |
Focuses on the unconscious mind, conscious decisions Focuses on the unconscious mind, conscious decisions |
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Conscious vs Preconscious vs Subconscious |
-Conscious: Thoughts, perceptions -Preconscious: Not currently avaliable, but could be in memories. -Subconscious: inaccessible, unacceptable urges. May "leak" out. |
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Features of daydreaming |
-Happens every 90 minutes -Topics: failure/success, aggression, sex, guilt, problem solving -Alters mood in the positive direction -Low risk way of dealing with problems -Increases arousal |
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Basic Cognitive features |
-Unconsciousness works with consciousness -Controlled processing: voluntary use of attention -Automatic processing: little of no conscious effert. (Eg driving, text) -Divided attention: Performing more than 1 activity at a time |
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What are circadian Rythms? |
These are your daily body temperature, hormone, and body function rythms. -Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN): the brains clock. Located in the hypothalamus. -Melatonin: secreted by the pineal gland. Has relaxing effect on the body. |
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What is free-running circadian rythm? |
Without day or night ques to guide you, people tend towards longer 24.2-24.8hr days. |
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What are some disruptions to the circadian rythm? |
-Seasonal affective disorder: tendancy to become depressed during certain months -Jet lag: It is easier to fly west, more compatible with free running cycle. -Night shiftwork: accidents are much more likely. Takes advantage of easier to lengthen days than to shorten them. |
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What is the K-complex? |
Most dramatic brain change that ever happens to humans. Occurs during stage 2 sleep. Big drop in eeg tracing Can be caused externally, epilepsy, RLS. |
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What is REM Sleep? |
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep. Eyes move while you sleep. -Brain waves are like you are awake -If woken up here, you always report a dream -Voluntary muscles cannot move. Sleep paralysis. -Non REM dreams are shorter, less story like. |
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Why do we sleep? Restoration model |
Sleep recharges our running bodies. Recovers us from fatigue.
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Why do we sleep? Circadian Sleep models (Webb) |
Sleep increases a species chances of survival in relation to environmental demands. Conserve energy and stay in at night from the danger |
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Why do we sleep? Learning and Memory |
Sleep is a time where we store memories. Decrease sleep, decreased retained information. |
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Why do we sleep? Mood Adjustment |
Speed of cycling in REM is correlated with positive mood following morning. Depressed people get into REM quickly, perhaps to increase mood |
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Why do we sleep? REM Rebound Effect |
Brain increases REM sleep when it is deprived of it. REM may be related to learning and memory. When learning new tasks, you have more REM during sleep |
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Sleep Disorders. Insomnia |
-Chronic difficulty falling aspllep, staying asleep, or having restful sleep. -You can fall asleep easly and have insomnia -Stimulus control: train your body to associate certain environments with sleep. Eg dont study in your room. -Situational insomnia: specific stress causing insomnia |
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Sleep Disorders. Narcolepsy |
Extreeme sleepyness during the day. Sleep attacks. Sleep goes directly to REM sleep Instant muscle weakness |
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Sleep Disorders. REM Sleep behaviour disorder |
REM sleep paralysis doesnt happen, so you are acting out your REM dreams |
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Sleep Disorders. Sleep apnea |
Interruptions in breathing while sleeping. Have to wake to breath again. May cause breathing to stop for up to 1 minute. Can be caused by physical abstruction, snoring. Can be caused by abnormal brain function. |
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Parasomnia. Sleepwalking |
Occurs in stage 3 or 4 More common in children Waking them is not dangerous Genetic |
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Parasomnia. Sleep talking |
Stage 1 or 2, sometimes REM Sensitive to external world |
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Parasomnia. Nightmares and Night Terrors |
Nightmares=Scary dreams Night Terrors= More intense Nightmares Night terrors are more likely to get people to jump up. Occurs in stage 3 and 4 |
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Why do we dream? Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) |
-Dream for wish fulfillment: gratification of our own unconscious desires -Manifest content (story of our dream) vs latent content (hidden meaning) |
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Why do we dream? Activation-synthesis theory |
-Dreams are just the brain making sense of random neural activity -Dreams serve no function |
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Why do we dream? Cognitive approaches |
-Dreams help us find solutions to problems -Cognitive process dream theories: focus on the process of how we dream |
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What do Agonistic drugs do? |
-Increase neuron activity -opiates, amphetamines |
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What do antagonistic drugs do? |
-Inhibits neural activity -Antipsychotics |
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What is drug tolerance? |
Decreasing responsivity to a drug |
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What are Compensatory drug responses and withdrawal? |
-Compensatory drug responses: is your body trying to go back to homeostasis by doing the opposite of the drug -Withdrawal: Continuing Compensatory drug responses when the drug stops |
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Depressants vs Stimulants |
-Depressants: decrease neural activity. Reduce anxiety, relaxes. o) Alcohol: Increases GABA, inhibitory transmitter. o) Barbiturates and Tranquilizers: Sleeping pills, anti-anxiety drugs. Also increase GABA -Stimulants: increase neural firing, arouses nervous systems. Boosts heart rate, alertness, mood. o)Amphetamines: Meth,MDMA/ecstasy. Reduce fatigue and appetite. Increase dopamine. o)Cocain: Blocks reuptake of dopamine. Excitation, sense of muscular strength, euphoria. |
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Opiates |
-Morphine/ Codeine/ heroin/ oxycontin -pain relief -increase dopamine and endorphines |
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Hallucinogens |
-Mushrooms/LSD/ -Hearing colours, seeing sounds -Violent outbursts, panic, flashbacks |
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Marijuana |
-Both Hallucinogen, sedative -Increases GABA and dopamine |
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Determinants of drug effects |
-Genetics: effects the strength of a drug on you -Setting and people around you influence drug arousal -Expectations affect drug experiences -Different Personalities have different effects |
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Hypnosis |
-You can't be hypnotized against your own will -Explantions: Does not cause action against your own will -Theories: o)Dissassociation theory: Division of consciousness creates one part listening to hypnotist and one part "hidden observer" o) Social cognitive theory: hypnosis is only caused by the expectations of the participants |
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Meditation |
-Mindfulness: free flowing of thoughts -Concentrative: focusing on a specific sound, sensation. |
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What is learning? |
A process by experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organisms behaviour or capabilities |
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What is Habituation? |
-Decrease in response strength to a repeated stimulus. (E.g. you do not constantly feel clothes on your skin) |
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What is sensitization? |
-Increase in strength response to a repeated stimulus. (If you get shocked by a door, you will react more to the second one) |
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Behaviourism |
-Focuses on stimulus and response -Purely care about observable events |
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Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning |
-Association of a neutral stimulus with one that consistently elicits a response -Acquisition: period during with response is being learned -When Conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with unconditioned stimulus (UCS), it is a learning trial 1. Unconditioned stimulus--> unconditioned response 2. Pair conditioned stimulus with unconditioned stimulus 3. Conditioned stimulus ---> conditioned response |
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Types of Pairing |
-Forward trace pairing: bell first, still ringing when food arrives -Forward short-delay pairing: bell rings and stops. Food arrives. -Simutaneous pairing: bell and food at same time -Backward pairing: food first, then bell. *Forward Trace pairing is the most effective *Extinction: (CS) Bell is presented repeatedly without (UCS). Classical conditioning breaks |
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Pavlov's dog Conditioned Learning |
1. Dog sees meat (ucs)--> Dog salivate (ucr) 2. Pair meat with ringing bell (cs) 3. Ringing bell (cs)----> Dog salivate (cr) |
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What is stimulus generalization? |
A similar Conditioned stimulus causes the Conditioned response. (Bells of similar loudness, frequency will also cause the dog to salivate). -Discrimination: when the conditioned response occurs to one conditioned stimulus, but not others. |
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What is a phobia? |
-Relatively common, intense, irrational, anxiety disorder. -You realized the fear is irrational, but can't help it. |
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Ways to overcome phobia... |
-Behaviour therapy: uses classical conditioning (conditioned stimuli) to cure the fear -Systematic desensitization: Patient learns relaxation excersizes and is exposed to the fear stimulus. (Probably best method). -Exposure therapy: expose phobic patient to without (ucs) and allow extinction to occur |
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What is operant Conditioning? |
Unlike classically conditioned responses, these are voluntary - classical responses happen automatically |
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Thorndike's Law of Effect |
-a response followed by a satisfying consequence will become more likely to occur, and opposite of unsatisfying consequences -Instumental Learning: because behaviour is instrumental to bringing certain outcomes Model: 1. Dominant response. Cat in a box scratches walls, you want it change the response to press a lever. 2. Choose and reinforce target response 3. Stimulus situation ---> target response |
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Skinner's Operant Behabiour |
-Operants are broader than responses - Response-reinforcement bond is critical: responses that get reinforced are more likely to occur Operant Model 1. Antecedent Stimuli: IF I say "sit" 2. Behaviour: AND my dog sits 3. Consequence: THEN she gets a treat. These are known as contingencies: getting food is contingent to response of sitting |
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Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning |
-Classical: Association between 2 stimuli. Stimulus occurs before behaviour. -Operant: Association between behaviour and consequences. Behaviour changes because of events that occur after it. - Classical: Reflex caused by preceeding stimulus -Operant: Organism generates response itself *Many learning situations use both. |
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All Operant Consequences |
-Positive reinforcement: Food for pressing lever, praise for good job. (Giving something good for doing good) -Negative reinforcement: unbrella in the rain, advil to stop headache. (Removing something bad for your good) -Operant extinction: weakening/ disappearence of response because it is not reinforced. E.g. treating attention seeking child with time out, i.e. no attention. (Removing reinforcer) -Positive punishment: spanking, pain. Response weakened be presentation of stimulus. (Giving something bad for doing bad) - Negative punishment: fines, loss of privileges. Differs from Operant extinction because the removed thing is not the cause of the begaviour. (Remove something good for doing bad)
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Primary vs Secondary reinforcers |
-Primary reinforcers: naturally reinforcing, satisfy biological needs (food, water). -Secondary/ conditioned reinforcers: associated with primary reinforcers ($$, grades). There also exists secondary punishment. E.g. spraying cat with water and saying no. Eventually no will be enough |
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What is Delay of gratification? |
The timing of consequences affects humans less than humans. Some people (drug addicts) can't overcome immediate gratification. |
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Shaping and Chaining reinforcements |
-Shaping: reinforcing successive approximations toward a final response. (Rewarding a shy child for talking louder( -Chaining: reward each response with opportunity to perform next response. E.g. Bell turns on the light --> if the light is on, the lever gives food. Works better than classical higher order classical conditioning, because food is still given. The light becomes a secondary reinforcer, food is primary. |
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Operant generalization vs discrimination |
-Operant generalization: Child learns not to touch his own stove. Doesn't touch all stoves. -Operant discrimination: Child learns to only raid cookie jar when parents aren't home. Operant response will occur to one antecendent, but not another. When discriminative stimuli influence behaviour it is called stimulus control (eg. Police cars exert stimulus control over peoples driving). |
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Reinforcement Schedules: Continuous vs Partial |
-Continuous reinforcement schedule: All response are reinforced. Everytime you push the lever, you get food. Produces rapid memory, but extinguishes faster. -Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: Only some are reinforced. Slot machines are like this. Slower learning, more resistant to extinction. You don't give up when it doesn't work because thats normal. -Partial reinforcement effect: experience with extinctikn maintains responding because reinforcement is unpredictable. *Fast learning with high resistance: start continuous then switch to partial/ variable. |
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Reinforcement Schedules Ratio vs Interval |
-Ratio schedules: A certain % of schedules are reinforced -Interval Schedules: A certain amount of time must pass before the next response is reinforced |
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Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed vs Variable |
-Fixed schedule: reinforcement occurs after a certain amount if responses. (Every 3 presses. FR-3) -Variable schedule: Number of responses required for reinforcement varies. (Average of 3 presses VR-3) |
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What is Learned Taste Aversion? |
Conditioned taste aversion: pairing a taste of smell with toxin, so now that scent/taste repulses. (Eg. Some animals show taste aversion when side effects are still hours away) |
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What are Biologically prepared fears? |
Fears that are easier to classically condition fear to, (eg. Snakes, spiders rather than flowers), because of either culture (cognitive) or evolution (biological). |
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Constraints on Operant Conditioning and instinctive drift |
-Belands tried to teach a chicken to play baseball, but when it seen the ball, it pecked it thinking it was food. -This is called Instinctive drift: drifting back to instinctive behaviour |
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Learning centers in the brain |
-Cerebellum: classically conditioned movements (blinking) -Amyglada: Classical conditioned fears -Nucleus accumbens, dopamine: rewards *Rich learning environments leads to better brain developement= better learning ability |
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Insight and Cognitive Maps. (Thorndike & Tolman) |
-Thorndike: Chimps learn by insight, not trial and error. Behaviourists argue insight is a combination of previously reinforced responses -Tolman: Cognitive map - mental representation of maze. Rats remember the path of a previous maze to escape. |
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Escape and avoidance Conditioning |
-Escape Conditioning: organisms learn a response to terminate an aversive stimulus. Acquired and maintained through negative reinforcement. (E.g. putting on sweater to escape cold) -Avoidance conditioning: Organisms learn to completely avoid aversive stimulus. Learn to respond before stimulus begins. (E.g. putting on a sweater before going outside) |
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Learned Helplessness |
-Animals who had no control over their environment develope "learned helplessness. -They learn there is no contingency between response and reinforcement -Pet/plant therapy: Give a person a pet/ plant so they have control over something |
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Amygdala function |
-responsible for fear conditioning (predicting danger) -sometimes fear conditions leads to misdirected fear response (PTSD, Phobia) |
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Expectancy model (Cognition in Classical conditioning) |
-Expectancy Model: what matters is not how well the CS and UCS are paired, but how well the CS predicts the UCS |
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Awareness (Cognition in Operant Conditioning) |
-Awareness: You must be aware of the pairing. - The percieved connection is what matters, not the actual one |
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Observational Learning |
-When you watch models and learn from them -You actually aren't being conditioned in any way |
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Basics of Memory |
-Encoding (Acquisition): Getting info into the system by translating into neural code -Storage (retention): Retaining info over time -Decoding (Retrieval): Pulling info out of storage and using it |
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Three Component Model of Memory |
1. Sensory memory- Holds incoming sensory info just long enough for it to be recognized -Sensory registers: initial info processors o) Iconic store: Visual sensory register. Impossible to retain pure visual info for more than a fraction of a second. o) Echoic store- Auditory sensory register. Lasts about 2 seconds. o) Other sensory registers are very poor 2. Short-Tern/ Working memory- small portion of sensory memory enters this part, which holds info we are conscious of. It is "working" because it is consciously processing. -Memory codes: Mental Images (visual), Sound codes (phonological), focus on meaning (sematic), Patterns of movement (motor). -Capacity: 7 +/- 2: "magic number" of items that can be held in STM. -Duration: Usually STM has about a 20 second lasting time. -Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating memory codes to remember in STM. -Forgetting: (Also applies to LTM). o) Decay: material gets old, fades away o) Interference: new material pushes out old 3. Long Term Memory: We form LTM until we die. Unlimited storage. In LTM things are coded semantically (by meaning). -Serial Position effect: Easier to remember first and last items in a list. o) Primacy effect: early words transfer to LTM. o) Recency effect: Last words are still in STM. |
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Effortful and Automatic Processing |
-Effortful: Rehearsing, making lists, taking class notes. (E.g. studying for test) -Automatic: Info about frequency, spacial location, sequence, and timing. (E.g. stuff you did in a day) |
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Different Encodings |
-Structural Encoding: How the word looks. (E.g. capitals?) -Phonological/ phonemic encoding: How the word sounds -Semantic Encoding: What the word means
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Memory Enhancing Techniques |
-Hierarchy: Meaningful heirarchy causes better memory than random hierarchy. Organizing stuff helos you remember it better. -Chunking: Organize info into smaller meaningful chuncks. (e.g. phone #'s). -Mnemonic devices: any sort of memory aid. (Hierarchy, chunking, acronym, etc) -Dual coding theory: using both verbal and non-verbal cues to enhance memory. -Method of loci: imagine a distinct environment and form an image linking the place to the item you want to remember |
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Define Schema |
-Schemas are "concepts" -They are mental frameworks. An organized pattern of thought about something - Creates a readiness to percieve info a certain way.
Aquiring "expert knowledge" is developing a schema. -Expert chess players are better than novices at remembering the pieces on a board when they are in a logical place - If they are placed randomly, they remember equally -Experts schema is only useful when pieces are in a logical order. |
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Memory As A network |
Associative Network - Memory is a massive network of associated ideas and concepts -Memories are connected nodes in a web -Nodes that fire together, wire together (close to each other) -Priming: Activation of one concept by another Neural Networks -In this model, neurons do not store information -Each neuron is a processing unit -Concepts are activated by specific patterns of neurons firing |
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Types of Long Term Memory |
-Declaritive: Factual Knowledge o) Episodic memory: Factual knowledge containing personal experience o) Semantic memory: General factual knowledge about the world, language -Procedural Memory: Skills and actions. (Ex. Riding a bike, instrument). These are classicall conditioned responses. |
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Explicit Vs Implicit Memory |
-Explicit Memory: Conscious and intentional memory retrieval. o) Recognition: Decide if a stimulus is familiar. (Multiple choice quiz) o) Recall: Spontaneous memory retrieval. (Essay, short answer) x) Cued Recall: Hints to stimulate memory -Implicit Memory: Memory unconsciously influences behaviour. (E.g. riding a bike, driving) |
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Define Retrieval Cue |
- Internal/external factor that stimulates info in LTM (ex.priming) •Having multiple self generated cues is the best way to remember |
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Memory Retrieval: Define Distinctiveness |
-If something is distinct from surrounding stimuli it is easier to remember. (E.g. weddings, funerals, vacations are distinct and easy to remember) |
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Define Flashbulb memories |
-Clear vivid snapshots if memories -Can be positive or negative events -Despite confidence in them, they are not always accurate |
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Encoding Specificity Principal |
- Memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those during encoding |
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Context vs state dependent memory |
-Context dependent memory: sights of schools may trigger memories of friends -State dependent memory: better retrieval when internal states are the same during encoding and recall |
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Improving Memory |
-External aids: shopping list - general memory strategies: Organizing, rehearsing -Formal mnemonic techniques: acronyms - Overlearning: Continued learning past point of initial learning. Sounds bad, but its actually good. The more the better -Keyword method: Think of highly visualize image and link it with new concept, have words interact -Method of loci: place each item at a different location, also best with interaction. -Peg method: take an easy list (1 2 3, a b c) and use them as pegs to hang new info |
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Why do we forget? |
- Encoding Failure: Not necessarily forgetting what we knew, but never encoding it to begin with -Decay theory: With time and disuse, the physical memory trace fades away. Theory in debate. Sometimes you do better the second time when tested. -Proactive interference: Material learned in the past interferes with recall of newer material (old phone # messes up new phone # memory) -Retroactive interference: New info interferes with you ability to recall old info (you cant remember old phone #). •Tip-of-toungue: you feel like you were just about to remember something when you never knew the info at all. -Repression: motivated forgetting of anxious events. Controversial idea. -Amnesia: •Retrograde amnesia: forget events prior to amnesia •Anterograde amnesia: Can't form new memories (Korsakoff's Syndrome). |
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Dementia and Alzheimer's |
-Dementia: Impaired memory and other cognitive deficits that come with brain degeneration. - Alzheimer's: Most common in those 65+. 500,000 people have it. •Forgetfulness, poor judgement, confusion, disorientation •Death within 10 years •Degeneration of temporal lobe, hippocampus; areas that turn STM into LTM •Disrupts acetylcholine system (important for memory) -Cause? •Chromosome 21 defect. Abnormal amount of "plaques and tangles". Viral damage to blood-brain barrier. Zinc/aluminum doesnt cause it -Treatment? •"Smart drugs" (nootropics) slow progression |
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Prospective Memory |
-Remembering to do things in the future -Good Retrospective memory does not mean you will have good prospective memory |
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Memory as constructive Processes |
-We can "reconstruct" memories by piecing together bits of info -Boundary extension: Remembering something you saw as being "wider-angle" than it really was. -Misinformation effect: distortion of memory due misleading post-event info. -Source confusion: We recognize a thing as familiar but don't know where we saw it. *People are very susceptable to suggestions. Eye-witnesses are notoriously inaccurate. . *Children are more susceptable to suggestions |
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Biology of Memory |
-Frontal Lobe: deeper encoding produces more frontal lobe activity -Hippocampus helps convert STM into LTM, but not where LTM is stored. -Memory consolidation: various components of a memory are pricessed in different regions of the cortex and gradually bound together in the hippocampus. •Several brain regions are involved. •Thalamus damage can impair the encoding of new memories and the retrieval of old ones. •Amygdala is responsibke for emotional aspect of LTM •Cerebellum is responsible for procedural memory. |
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What is Sensation? |
-Stimulus detection -Our sense organs translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses -Those impulses are sent to the brain |
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What is Perception? |
- Making “sense” of what our senses tell us • Organizing the stimulus input and giving it meaning • Perception is heavily influenced by context |
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What is Transduction? |
- Characteristics of the stimulus are converted into nerve impulses • There are more than just 5 senses: balance, temp/pain/pressure & immune system areall sensory systems • Sensory systems extract info that we need to survive from the environment |
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What is synethesia? |
- A condition in which the brain mixes up senses (ex. Sounds have colors) • Theory 1: The pruning of neural connections that occurs in infancy hasn’t happened • Theory 2: Insufficient neural inhibition in the brain so input overflows to other areas |
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What is Psychophysics? |
• The study of the relation between physical stimulus and physiological response • Fechner: “The father of psychophysics” |
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Absolute threshold and difference threshold |
Absolute threshold • Lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50% of the time. • Varies depending on fatigue, expectations, etc. Difference threshold • Smallest difference between two stimuli than can be detected 50% of the time • The difference threshold is amount of chance necessary for a Just NoticeableDifference (JND) |
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Signal detection Theory |
• Situational factors can influence sensory judgements • When the perception is more important, people have lower absolute thresholds • Perception is essentially a decision |
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Weber's Law |
• States that the difference threshold is proportional to magnitude of stimulus. • Varies for every stimulus • Breaks down at extremely high and low intensities • Most sensitive - pitch, brightness• Least sensitive - smell, taste. ∆I ÷ I = c where: I is the original stimulus intensity ∆I is the change in stimulus intensity c is the stimulus constant for this stimulus |
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Fencher's Law |
S = k log(I) • Sensation increases with the logarithm of intensity • Unlike Weber’s law, this says that there is not a 1:1 relationship between physicalintensity and psychological intensity • Generalizes better than Weber’s law |
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Steven's Power Law |
S = k log(I)n • More predictive across a variety of sensations |
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What is sensory adaptation? |
• Reducing sensitivity to a constant stimulus • This is the reason a concert seems painfully loud when you walk in but seems normalvolume by the end of it • Because of this, your eyes are constantly moving; otherwise images slowly disappear |
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What is subliminal Perception? |
• This is perception below the absolute threshold • Can we perceive subliminal stimuli? Is our behavior affected by subliminal stimuli? |
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Visual System |
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How do rods and cones work? |
• Turn light into action potentials though the breakdown of photopigments (chemicals) • Rods: Rhodopsin. If you extract Rhodopsin and expose it to light, it gets “bleached”.When you see a flash of light your retina is bleached. • Cones: Erythrolabe (R), Chlorolabe (G), Cyanolabe (B). |
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Trichromatic Colour theory |
• Every color can be made of Red, Green and Blue (RGB), so there are three colorreceptors in the retina •Problems with theory: why can red-green colorblind people can still see yellow? •Also, why is the afterimage a different colour |
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Opponent Process theory |
•There are three different cones and each one has two colors (R-G, Blue-Y, Black-W) •So there would be one chemical for green, and an “opponent process” for red•This explains the afterimage as the opponent process rebounding |
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Dual Process Theory |
• Says that both trichromatic and opponent-process theories were right • Trichromatic was right about the cones • Opponent process was right about the ganglion cells |
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Visual: Single cell Recordings |
-Retinal ganglion cells - respond to spots -Cortex cells - respond to slits/bars of light, not spots -Simple cell - respond to a slit at a particular orientation on a specific retinal location -Complex cell - responds to moving slits/bars of light -Hypercomplex cell - respond to combination of stimulus features (objects, angles) |
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Hearing: Terminology |
-Frequency - number of sound waves per second (Hz) • Frequency determines pitch. 20 - 20,000Hz is hearable. -Amplitude - vertical size of the waves (db) • Amplitude determines loudness. -Loudness • Rate of firing of hair cells • Specific hairs have higher threshold so they only fire with louder sounds |
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Pitch Theories |
• Frequency theory - nerve pluses match the frequency of the sound -Problem: neurons can’t fire fast enough to produce soundsover 1000Hz • Place theory - the specific point in the cochlea where the fluid wavepeaks indicates the frequency (discovered by von Bekesy) *Both are true. For lowsounds, frequency theoryholds true. For highsounds, place theorydoes. |
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Taste and Smell |
-These are chemical senses, instead of energy senses like sound and sight. -Taste buds: chemical receptors concentrated along the edges and back of the tongue -Pheromones: chemical signals in natural body scent, no evidence to support they effectbehavior |
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Skin and Body |
-Tactile senses - pressure, pain, warmth cold -Endorphins - natural painkillers, inhibit pain neurotransmitters -Kinesthesis - info about position of muscles, joints and movements -Vestibular sense - body orientation or equilibrium (inner ear fluid) |
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Bottom up vs top down Processing |
-bottom-up processing - individual elements of the stimulus are then combined intounified perception. -top-down processing - sensory info is interpreted in the light of existing knowledge,concepts, ideas (pioneered by Gestalt). |
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Perception: Processing depends on Attention |
• Attention involves: 1) focusing on a certain stimuli and 2) filtering out other incominginfo • Shadowing - playing a different message in either ear. It’s easy to repeat the words ofone (shadow them), but only at the expense of paying attention to the other. • Inattention blindness - You can look right at something without “seeing” it if yourattention is on something else • Our motives and experiences affect what we pay attention to. |
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Gesalt Laws of Perception |
-Similarity: We group similar objects together -Proximity: We group nearby objects -Closure: We close gaps -Continuity: we follow paths |
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What are perceptual constancies? |
-Perceptual constancies - allow us to recognize familiar stimuli in different conditions • Shape constancy - recognize things at different angles • Brightness constancy - relative brightness remains the same • Size constancy - size of objects remains relatively constant at different distancesThese must be learned - small kids don’t do this. |
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Binocular vs monocular depth cues |
-Monocular Depth Cues - allow you to detect depth with one eye • Light and shadow • Linear perspective • Interposition/overlap • Height in horizontal plane • Texture gradient • Clarity • Relative size • Motion parallax - nearby objects move faster than far ones -Binocular Depth Cues - require two eyes • Binocular/retinal disparity - each eye sees a very slightly different image because theyare on different sides of your head. • Convergence - feedback from muscles that turn your eyes inward |
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What is the critical Period in Brain developement? |
Critical period - certain experiences must happen in this timefor the brain to develop normally |
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Perceptual Problem Solving |
• How do we recognize and make sense of patterns? • Constructionists: believe that we create meaning from basic elements or features(bottom up) • Register small components and build into larger, meaningful units • Geons - Biederman believes these are the elementary shapes of perception (cylinders,rectangles, etc) |
