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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Why is socialization important |
Socialization is pervasive, can be expensive and time-consuming, often done badly, teaches individuals to be like and unlike others |
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Social structures |
How statuses and Roles constrain social interaction |
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Social structure definition |
regular patterns of social interaction and persistent relationships. Social structures link the individual to the broader society, simultaneously enabling and constraining them includes normative, occupational, and stratification structures |
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Normative strucutre |
expectations attatched to positions |
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Occupational strucutre |
distribution of people among social positions |
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stratification system |
the distribution of social rewards |
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Social status |
socially recognized position in a social system can be defined in many ways: by occupation, education, family position, age, race, gender |
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Ascribed status |
status into which individuals are assigned without regard for their actions, desires, or abilities (male, female, young, old, black, white, son) |
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Achieved status |
social status acquired through an individual's own actions (college student, married person, physician) |
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Status Set |
set of all the statuses occupied by a person at the same time |
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Master status |
position so important it dominates all other status in the individuals status set, for both the individual holding the status and others pro athlete, president of United States -stigmatized statuses are also often master statuses -AIDS victim, blind person -sometimes a persons master status changes (for example Ken Lay went from respected corporate executive to convicted felon before dying of a heart attack) |
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Manifest status |
status that defines or structures the role set for a particular situation |
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Latent Status |
any status formally defined as irrelevant to the situation which should have no bearing on interaction |
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a persons status set anchors them to overlapping organizations, institutions, and society as a whole |
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How can organizations which exist through the people who are part of them outlive indiviudals |
Social statuses may continue to exist long after a particular individual is gone. Individuals may occupy different social statuses at different times |
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Social statuses make possible a complex division of labor in which different people perform distinct tasks |
social statuses often determine the social rewards individuals receive in the form of wealth, prestige and power- the elements of social stratification |
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Social role |
set of expectations for anyone occupying a particular social status -role expectations may be for behaviors, attitudes, values, or beliefs Roles are attached to social statuses, not to individuals Ex- a mother is expected to care for her child, regardless of who she as an individual is |
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Role set |
set of all the roles associated with a particular social status |
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Role performance |
actions by an individual occupying a social status based on their role (musician playing in a concert) Roles can evolve over time and be changed by people |
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Role making |
modifications or changes in roles as a result of individual action by people occupying those roles |
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Role strain |
difficulties meeting the expectations of a single role (father may be unable to support his family financially) |
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Role conflict |
When different roles have incompatible expectations (teacher and parent) |
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Role segregation |
avoid statuses invoking incompatible roles for the same role partner (teachers avoid romantic involvement with students) |
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Role distance |
a separation of ones self from the role one must play. It is a strategy to separate identify from action. (mother saying "this will hurt me more than it hurts you") -when a person has an attitude |
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Roles make life manageable |
Predict the behaviors of others, provides expectations for how you should act, generalize behavior from one setting to another |
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Roles can limit Behavior |
-Can oversimplify behavior, encouraging routinized responses instead of thoughtful initiative (students may take notes and look attentive even when they dont understand the lecture rather than asking insightful questions to help the teacher get the point across) -May encourage relating to people based on stereotypes (parent may relate to children as children and overlook their distinctive differences as human beings) |
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Stereotypes |
generalizations about a category of people asserting they have a particular set of characteristics and not taking into account their individual differences. -Usually stereotypes are incorrect, inflexible, and unfair-stereotypes are often based on latent statuses of gender, race, and ethnicity -living up or down to these expectations can be a survival strategy in a social interaction that lets these stereotypes define the situation as seen by the otherperson but only feigned by the actor |
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Movidas |
Sociologist Reyes Ramos reports how Mexican Americans sometimes avoid openly challenging angelo stereotypes of Hispanics to smooth the interaction |
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Self-fulfilling prophecy |
an assumption that, once having been made, leads to the predicted event occurring
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Snyder Study |
Tested the impact of physical attractiveness of one person on the perception of them by others and the way others treat them -51 male-female dyads talked over phone, men shown attractive or unattractive picture randomly -judges rated males based on statements, and females |
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Results of snyder study |
Men formed their initial impressions based on general stereotypes associating physical attractiveness with socially desirable personality characterisitcs "attractive" females- more cordial, poised, socially adept, and humerous "unattractive" females- more awkward, serious, withdrawn, and socially inept |
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Snyder Study continued |
men treated woman differently, for "attractive" women the men acted more cordial, sexually warm, bold, outgoing, humorous, sexually permissive, and socially adept |
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Snyder study continued results(big picture) |
-The changed behavior of the men led the women to behave in ways that conformed to the men's stereotype of them -women in the attractive photo were perceived by the judges to be more friendly likable, and social -in short, these women tended to act in the manner expected by the men -women changed their behavior to conform to the stereotypes of the men even though they did not know what condition they were in |
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Brent Staples |
black man, graduate student in chicago, found whites feared him based on their stereotypes of black men -would cross street to avoid him. lock their car doors when he crosses in front of them, even run if he walked to closely behind them -changed behavior to counteract this, gave people wide berth on subway platforms, doesnt enter lobbies of buildings too quickly after people, whistles meoldies from classical composers |
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Stereotypes influence our behavior which influence others behavior which perpetuate the stereotype |
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3 variants of the interactionist perspective |
social interaction-emphasizes the meaning of actions and the use of symbols in communication -dramaturgical perspective views interaction as analogous to actors in a play -social exchange emphasizes the valued outcomes of the interaction |
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Social construction of reality |
process by which people define reality, influenced by interactions with others as well as their own life experiences |
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social construction of reality principles |
-social life is guided by status and role, but individuals also shape life -reality is not entirely objective, but is shaped by individual action -need to negotiate in interactions so others can see it same way -situations we define as real are real in their consequences -people act as though what they believe is true and it has real consequences for them wether it is objectively true or not |
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How is reality constructed |
-defining the situation -negotiated order |
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defining the situation |
-refers to the social process through which the statuses and roles appropriate to a situation are identified -situations can be defined through a combination of explicit actions along with props and staging -props and staging=> lights dimmed, slide displayed, microphone on explicit acts make claim regarding the situation "Let's begin the class" implicit acts acknowledge the definition without making an active claim (students sitting passively and listening) |
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Negotiated order |
When people offer different definitions of the situation, some sharedunderstanding must be reached. negotiated order - a social structure determined by theinteractions through which people propose, discuss, and often settleon a shared definition of the situation providing meaning for actions. |
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Negotiation |
attempts to come to some agreement by means otherthan coercion.– bargaining, mediating, exchanging, trading, persuading, compromising,and so on.• E.g., the U.S. tax code is the outcome of countless negotiations |
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Social life can be viewed using the metaphor of actorsplaying roles on a stage (Goffman, 1959) |
Human behavior can be understood as a deliberateattempt to manage the impressions other people have ofus. |
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impression management |
impression management - strategies people use toconvey a favorable impression or favorable self image toother people.• E.g., how a person dresses, their manner of speech, andacts they choose to perform or to inhibit in the presence ofothers. |
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Front-Stage |
• Front-stage – others present whom they would like toimpress (an “audience”).–e.g., the audience for a physician may be the patient, or in somecases, other health professionals whom they want to impress. |
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Example front-stage settings and the audience thatmakes the setting “front-stage” include–a job candidate on a job interview (employers are the audience)–a waitress serving meals in a restaurant (the customers are heraudience), and–a policeman on patrol (the “public” is the audience). |
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back-stage setting |
Audience is not present– do not have to actively engage in impression management– can relax and “be themselves”• Example back-stage settings– a job candidate telling her friends about their last job interview– a waitress in the kitchen in a restaurant where customers can’thear– a policeman at home discussing his day with his spouse |
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Emotional labor |
Emotional labor - work activity requiring the workerto display particular emotions in the normal course ofproviding a service. (Hoschild, 1989)• Airline attendants are often required to wear a smile ontheir face in the presence of customers (passengers) asare receptionists, nurses, hotel desk clerks, and cocktailwaitresses.• Physicians are expected to look serious and concerned• Employees in general are expected to leave theirpersonal troubles at home |
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T. R. Young (1990) studied ways in which collegestudents manage impressions by wearing populartee shirts.• sociology students at Colorado State University• three-day observation of people wearing tee shirts.• objective – to examine the kinds of messages• to understand the varieties of meanings(impressions ) they were trying to convey. |
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Broad themes of T-shirts |
Brand Names - cigarettes, expensive shoes, sportsequipment, up-scale clothing stores, beers.• Status Claims—exotic places such as Central America,Europe, Asia, and Hawaii showing that well-traveledand, by implication, of high social status.• Moral messages—religious tee shirts proclaimingsome Christian faith, pop philosophy such as “partyuntil you die,” or statements evoking brotherhood,sisterhood, and ecological concerns.• Youth culture— well-known rock groups or singers |
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Social exchange theory |
Social exchange theory• Homans (1961, 1973) and Blau (1964, 1987).• analyzes social interaction in terms of valuedoutcomes to the participants• assumes people are motivated by self-interest,as measured by rewards and costs of actions• tend to repeat highly rewarded actions and notrepeat costly ones.• Acts both costs and rewards for others• Hence we use our actions to influence others |
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Exchange is not limited to economic goodsbut characterizes all social interaction• Every act can be assessed in terms of itsrewards and benefits for participants• Has been applied to– loving relationships in marriages– interactions among multinational corporations– relationships between people of different ages |
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Norm of Reciprocity |
- if you give someone something, youexpect them to give you something of equal value in return(Gouldner, 1960)–give someone a gift expect something in return–Invite someone over expect to be invited over–Country makes concessions expect concessions fromother countries• The return may not be immediate, but should achieve arough equality, with incentives for maintaining that equalityin continuing mutual obligations (Gouldner, 1960). |
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Christmas Gift Exchange |
Theodore Caplow (1984) studied 4,347 gifts exchanged among 110Middletown adults in Christmas of 1978.• Caplow found a large number of rules for gift-giving, familiar tomost people, yet not written down anywhere– Maried couples with children should display a tree, unmarriedpersons without children should not.– Gifts should demonstrate familiarity with the recipient’spreferences and surprise the recipient by demonstrating moreknowledge the recipient than could reasonably be expected.– You should give a gift to near family members and spouses.– Closer familial relationships should produce more valued gifts |
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Exchange in Restaurants• William Foote Whyte (1948)• studied human relations and strategies managers use toelicit improved performance from workers• Studied 25 restaurants in and around Chicago• He and three research assistants spent a year• conducted extensive interviews• actually worked at various jobs from one to six monthseach |
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General shotgun-type benefits |
– E.g., health benefits or improved salaries– were important to provide appropriate compensation– But were not effective at eliciting loyalty and all-out effort |
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Supervisors who were able to elicit such all-out effortsfrom workers, they found, did so through a form of socialexchange. |
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In restaurants, demand varies dramatically• In a rush period, workers willing to work extra hard can be crucial forsuccess• White found that workers were more likely to help managers whoextended small favors or good turns to them in the past• This is consistent with the exchange of favors– E.g., if a hostess notices a waitress is swamped she can– talk with waiting customers to let them know they will be servedshortly– ask another waitress with less business to help bus tables– assist with setups and pouring water for customers– This makes the job of the waitress much easier– In return, the hostess can expect extra effort from that waitresswhen she needs |
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Principles of social exchange |
• Social exchange NOT a simple monetary exchange• Cannot be explicitly negotiated• Cannot be meticulously accounted for like a bank transaction• As Whyte puts it, “The favors and obligations should be felt by workersand supervisor, but they should not be talked about.”– Reminding workers of past favors reduces their sense of obligation– A favor offered with the clear intent of future help is no longer aselfless act of friendship with ambiguous but high value. Instead, itbecomes a calculating act to curry favor through an action thatseems increasingly less valuable.– Keeping too close track of favors owed also diminishes the worth offavors given. |
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General Principles• These same principles apply to social exchange in othersettings such as between friends or spouses.• Imagine how you would feel if your best friend keptdetailed records of favors they did for you• Or if every time your parents did you a favor theyreminded you they would expect payback at a later date– well never mind that one…parents do that all the time |
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The Social Construction ofExchange• Ironically, Whyte found that care must be taken to NOThelp when the circumstances are not unusual.• If help is given all the time the workers may begin to viewsuch help as a routine part of the job and bedisappointed when it is not given.• A favor gets redefined as normal behavior• Not extending a favor gets redefined as withholdingexpected help• Social exchange is affected by the symbolic interactionistconcept of defining the situation |
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Men are more likely than women to engage in body movements that express power |
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higher status people tend to ---- |
-have a more direct shoulder orientation when standing -adopt the arms-akimbo position when standing -to raise their heads in the interaction more often -to be more relaxed (sideways lean and leg and hand relaxation) |
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personal space |
a region around a person within which they like to maintain control |
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common amount of personal space, and which direction farthest |
1-1.5 feet to 4 feet is common for personal space in west -extends out farther in front than in other directions |
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women vs men personal space |
women smaller personal space |
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mediterranean and south america personal space |
smaller |
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many european countries a man kissing another man in greeting |
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eye gaze |
refers to where someone is looking |
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what is eye contact used for |
to seek feedback, to signal the desire for affiliation or a positive attitude -to assert higher status or power -to control social distance |
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interuptions |
device for exercising power and control in conversation |
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social interaction |
the process through which people affect one another through actions, interpretations of actions, and responses to actions |
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cooperation |
interaction among people or groups in which they act together to achieve a common goal which might not be achievable by acting alone |
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conflic |
struggle for limited resources having value to different participants, often requiring the defeat of others to achieve goal |
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zero-sum game |
describes social interactions in which one participant can win only if the other participants lose and whatever benefits the winner gets become losses for the others so there is no net positive benefit of the interaction |
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coercion |
occurs when one person forces its will on another based on the threat of physical force or violence |
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competetition |
conflict governed by rules limiting the conflict -achieving the main goal of individual success is more important than defeating or subduing opponents -extremely common in western industrialized societies and central to capitalism |
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what does social interaction involve |
meaning, impression management, notions of fairness |
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argumentation |
effective way to improve knowledge and come to agreement |
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critical thinking |
way to make arguments self correcting |
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what does argument provide |
Argument provides a way for people with divergent views to jointlyreach conclusions through sound logical reasoning based on validevidence.
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The soundness of those conclusions can be better than thesoundness of conclusions either side would make on their own. It isthrough reasoned debate that each side clarifies their claims,identifies problems in their own reasoning, and finds common groundwith the opposition.
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arguments provide a way to advance knowledge, taking into account diverse perspectives and concerns |
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Eristic dialogue |
social debate in which the primary goal is to win the argument, not to improve our understanding or achieve mutually agreed solutions |
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4 elements of good arguments |
1.final claim-the conclusion one participant argues is true 2.counterclaim-the alternative claim that often opposes the final claim 3.supporting argument-statements supporting a claim or counterclaim 4.rebuttal-statements challenging a claim or arguments in support of a claim |
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evidence |
facts used to support a claim |
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pseudo-evidance |
anectdotes or other unproven information with limited credibility |
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warrant |
a statement connecting the data to a claim |
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backing |
credentials that may be used to add crediblity to a claim |
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pragma-dialectics |
series of rules for arguments, that if followed should lead to rational discourse and sound conclusions -ideal rules and may not always be followed but should be in practice |
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6 rules of arguments |
1. All claims must be defensible – the burden of proof is on the partythat makes a claim, and others have the right to challenge anyclaim.
2. Stay focused and relevant– support for a claim must be relevant tothe claim, and any support for a rebuttal must be related to therebuttal. 3. Clarify – be as clear and as explicit as possible in defining concepts,stating assumptions, and making logical arguments.4. Sound reasoning – claims and rebuttals should be based on soundlogic and evidence.5. Question assumptions – unstated assumptions should be clarifiedand may be challenged. 6. Acknowledge valid points made by the other party – this is the onlyway to achieve closure by recognizing progress and moving on toother issues. |
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argument goals |
Notice the argument is not measured by who winsor loses, but by how informative it is and how wellclaims are tested and defended
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disagreement and arguments |
Disagreement is good. A better argument mayhave more initial disagreement. If claims are notchallenged and defended and rebutted then ourconfidence in them is less.
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critical thinking |
Critical thinking is thinking that leaves your thought processesleast vulnerable to error.
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what does critical thinking give us |
Critical thinking gives the individual the necessary andsufficient tools to perform well under even the mostchallenging of circumstances.
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what is required for thinking to be critical |
-independent -reflexive -open-minded -focursed |
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what is required for the "thinking" part of critical thinking |
-blend abstract and concrete -systematic -discerning -capable |
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independent thinking |
acknowledge own position, clearly state your position including -clarify concepts -compare view to others -challenge assumptions -justify and defend position |
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Critical thinking involves thinking precisely about thinking; clarifyingunclear beliefs, concepts, and arguments; comparing ideals withactual practice; and carefully analyzing the meanings of words orphrases, challenging them when necessary.
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reflexive thinking |
requires self-reflection and selfcriticism.We need to recognize we could be wrong andexamine our own assumptions and logic for possiblemistakes.
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reflexive thinking |
It is meta-thinking--“thinking about your thinking while youare thinking in order to make your thinking clearer,more accurate, or more defensible” (Paul, et al., 1990).
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what is understanding we may be biased and using role-taking to imagine how people from other perspectives might disagree and challenge our thinking> |
being reflexiv |
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open-minded thinking |
is thinking that is open topossibilities, seeks out information, and is willing totrust logic and empirical data to take us in the rightdirection.Being open-minded requires tolerance for ambiguity, confidence in reasoning to help us reach betterconclusions, and a willingness to be proven wrong.
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what type of thinking trait is a willingness to be wrong |
open-minded |
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what type of thinking trait includes a tolerance for ambiguity |
open minded |
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Being open-minded helps arguments lead toimproved knowledge and resolution.Effective arguments require that each participantlisten to and respond to others.Addressing their points with rebuttals helps resolvedisagreements.Acknowledging valid points made by othersprovides closure.
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signs of open-minded thinking |
1. acknowledging other perspectives 2.anticipating arguments of other perspectives that might challenge your view 3.respecting other perspectives, acknowledging their strengths and weaknesses 4.avoiding basic dualism- a tendency to see everything as right or wrong, black or white |
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basic dualism |
a tendency to seeeverything as right or wrong, black or white, andthinking your side is right
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focused arguments |
question/theme clearly identified, -sub-issues identified -implicit issues need to be made explicit example- answering questions instead of dodging them in debate -focused also includes rebuttals to clarify the limitations or question the validity of points made by the other side |
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systematic thought |
thought is systematic when the person puts thoughts in context, examines the implications, conclusions, and consequences of the position, and considers those as they choose the position they wish to defend |
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Main things included in systematic thought |
-examines the logical implications of an argument to see what it implies that might not be immediately obvious -assesses the valued consequences (who benefits, who might be hurt) -considers potential ethical consequences |
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What does systematic thought do |
-puts the argument in broader context so it can be better understood -uses evidence and context to moderate or discount conclusions -for example a hiring decision needs to take into account race, social class, and other evidence of how those factors influenced the canidates |
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systematic thought looks at all the ways a social policy could have branching effects |
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abstract reasoning |
ability to reason at many different levels of abstraction, and be able to generalize from the particular to the abstract |
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two types of abstract reasoning |
interpretation generalization |
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interpretation |
type of abstract reasoning -recognizes abstract concepts and relationships exemplified by specific examples |
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"the decision to invade was an example of group think" what kind of reasoning |
interpreation |
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Generalization |
type of abstract reasoning -recognizing when something may reflect general principles applicable in other situations |
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Discerning |
cultural thinking requires avoiding relativism -thinking is discerning when it uses relevant evidence, and rigorous methods (ie the standards of scientific knowledge) to choose among competing alternatives |
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relativism |
view that different views are necessarily equally valid -Relativism confuses respecting the right of everyone to havean opinion with assessing the validity of that opinion. This istypified by statements such as “Everyone is entitled to theirown opinion. My opinion is just as good as yours.” |
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what does it take to discern between alternative views |
methods-accepted procedures for obtaining evidence evidence- empirical data that can be used to assess the validity of particular ideas |
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Why does thinking need to be discerning |
-Thinking needs to be discerning becausenothing can be known completely -Knowledge should never be regarded asbeyond reproach. -Instead, knowledge should be regarded astentative and subject to revision based on newevidence and interpretation |
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what is this comment lacking? “Well, that is your opinion and mine is different. Weeach have a right to our own opinion.” |
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capable thinking |
is the exercise of logical rational skills, analytic skills, theability to think clearly and effectively
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capabilities expected in discipline and public discourse |
-Being able to use common forms of logical reasoning (such as “if…then”reasoning) being able to recognize and work with types and typologies E.g., distinguishing problem customers from customers in general avoiding logical fallacies Understanding causal reasoning |
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multiple causes |
Most things in the social sciences are caused by morethan a single thing.
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Causality versus association
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Just because two variables are correlateddoes not mean one causes the other.
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Spurious relationships
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Both ice cream sales and rapes increase in warmweather.
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Causal direction
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Whether X causes Y or Y causes X is not always obviousand may have to be examined carefully
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9 ways to be a critical thinker |
1.Give greater credence to evidence obtained with strong methods
2.Question assumptions 3.Emphasize sound evidence over opinion or pseudo-evidence 4.Consider how you might be biased and try to minimize it (bereflexive) 5.Acknowledge valid points from other perspectives 6.Avoid logical fallacies 7.Engage in systematic analysis, examining the non-obviousimplications of your approach 8.Consider the broader context and other factors that caninfluence results (contextualizing). 9.Address points raised by other perspectives and work to achieveresolution (stay focused) |
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False Dichotomy |
A false dichotomy occurs when the arguermakes it appear there are only two choices,then eliminates one, making it appear the othermust be selected.
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hasty generalization |
occurs when someonemakes assumptions or generalizations aboutan entire category of cases based on a very fewcases that are most likely too few or biased
-The only fraternity members I have met weredrinking at bars, so all frat boys must be drunks |
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Post hoc ergo propter hoc
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-is anargument that because Y follows X, Y must havebeen caused by X.
-The problem is that just because Y follows doesnot necessarily mean that X caused Y. It could bejust a coincidence. In the example of the university president, for example,the fund-raising program might have been changedbefore the new president was hired |
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slippery slope |
-asserts that ifsomething is done it will result in a series ofincreasingly dire consequences. -If someone starts to use a soft drug likemarijuana then eventually they will try harder drugslike cocaine, and ultimately they will becomeaddicted to drugs like heroin |
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what is this an example of? |
Affirming the consequent |
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affirming the consequent |
reasoning thatargues that because the consequent of thestatement is true, the antecedent must be trueas well.
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false analogy |
A false analogy occurs when two things areargued to be similar and hence a property ofone is also a property of the other.
-College students are like high school studentsand should not be expected to be able to reasonlogically about complex problems. Instead theyshould just be told what to do and be expected toobey. |
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genetic fallacies |
argue for against an idea based on its source
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Ad hominem argument |
an argument “against the person.” It argueswe should not believe a conclusion based not on the argument but onthe person making the argument.
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Appeal to authority |
accepting the argument because of its source George Washington had slaves, therefore slavery is good because we all know hewas an honorable man.
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The flaw here is judging the arguer rather than the argument. Evenincompetent people occasionally get things right. Even dishonestpeople sometimes tell the truth.
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AD POPULUM (appeal to popularity) |
Ad populum arguments suggest somethingmust be true because most people (or manypeople) believe it.
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