Social Psychology Final Review

Front 1

Self Concept

Back 1

The sum total of an individual's beliefs about his or her own personal attributes

Front 2

affective forecasting

Back 2

the process of predicting how one would feel in response to future events

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self-perception theory

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the theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior

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two-factor theory of emotion

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the theory that the experience of emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal

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Self-presentation

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strategies people use to shape what others think of them

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self-monitoring

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the tendency to change behavior in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation

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nonverbal behavior

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behavior that reveals a person's feelings without words, through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues

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covariation principle

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a principle of attribution theory that holds that people attribute behavior to factors that are present when a behavior occurs and are absent when it does not

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availability heuristic

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the tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by ow easily instances of it come to mind

Front 10

false-consensus effect

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the tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviors

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base-rate fallacy

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the finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates

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fundamental attribution theory

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the tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of the situation on other people's behavior

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belief in a just world

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the belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims

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impression formation

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the process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression

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priming

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the tendency for recently used words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information

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implicit personality theory

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a network of assumptions that people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors

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central traits

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traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions

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primacy effect

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the tendency for information presented early in sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later

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confirmation bias

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the tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs

Front 20

self-fulfilling prophecy

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the process by which one's expectation about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations

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stereotype

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a belief or association that links a group of people with certain traits or characteristics

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prejudice

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negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups

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discrimination

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behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group

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modern racism

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a form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize

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implicit racism

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racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally

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ambivalent sexism

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a form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings

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stigmatized

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being persistently stereotyped, perceived as deviant, and devalues in society because of membership in a particular social group or because of a particular characteristic

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stereotype threat

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the experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one's group

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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the tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups

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stereotype content model

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a model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth

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superordinate goal

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a shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups

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realistic conflict theory

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the theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources

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social role theory

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the theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women

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illusory correlation

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an overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated

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attitude

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a positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea

Front 36

evaluative conditioning

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the process by which we form an attitude toward a neutral stimulus because of its association with a positive or negative person, place, or thing

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theory of planned behvaior

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the theory that states that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions

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persuasion

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the process by which attitudes are changed

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central route to persuasion

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the process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strengths of its arguments

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peripheral route to persuasion

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the process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues

Front 41

need for cognition

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a personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities

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cognitive dissonance theory

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the theory holding that inconsistent cognitions arouses physiological tension that people become motivated to reduce

Front 43

insufficient justification

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a condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward

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insufficient deterrence

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a condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened

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conformity

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the tendency to change our perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms

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informational influence

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influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgements

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normative influence

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influence that produces conformity when a person fears negative social consequences of appearing deviant

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private conformity

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the change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others

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public conformity

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a superficial change in overt behavior without a corresponding change of opinion that is produces by real or imagined group pressure

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minority influence

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the process by which dissenters produce change within a group

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individualism

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a cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self-reliance take priority over group allegiances

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collectivism

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a cultural orientation in which interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over personal goals

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compliance

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changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests

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foot-in-the-door technique

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a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting the person to comply with a much smaller request

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lowballing

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a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by reveling hidden costs

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door-in-the-face technique

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influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large it is rejected

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that's-not-all technique

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influencer begins with an inflated request, then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus

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obedience

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behavior produced by the commands of authority

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social impact theory

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the theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons

Front 60

social facilitation

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a process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks

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evaluation comprehension theory

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a theory that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when others are seen as potential evaluators

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distraction-conflict theory

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a theory that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those distract from the task and create attentional conflict

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social loafing

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a group-produced reduction in individual output on tasks where contributions are pooled

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collective effort model

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the theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to a degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant, and meaningful for achieving outcomes that they value

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deindividuation

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the loss of a person's sense of individuality and reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior

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process loss

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the reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation

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process gain

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the increase in group performance so that the group outperforms the individuals who comprise the group

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group polarization

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the exaggeration of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members through group discussion

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groupthink

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a group-decision making style characterized by excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence

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escalation effect

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the condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made

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biased sampling

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the tendency for groups to spend more time discussing shared information than unshared information

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transactive memory

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a shared system for remembering information that enables multiple people to remember information together more efficiently than they could do so alone

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social dillema

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a situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone will create the worst outcome for everyone

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resource dilemmas

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social dilemmas involving how two or more people will share a limited resource

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need for affiliation

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the desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships

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loniless

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a feeling of deprivation about existing social relations

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mere exposure effect

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the phenomenon whereby the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they evaluate that stimulus

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matching hypothesis

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the proposition that people are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness

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reciporocity

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a mutual exchange between what we give and receive

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hard-to-get effect

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the tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available

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social exchange theory

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a perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others

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equity theory

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the theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners

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exchange relationship

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a relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions

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communal relationship

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a relationship in which participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs

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attachment style

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the way a person typically interacts with significant others

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passionate love

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romantic love characterized by high arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection

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companionate love

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a secure, trusting, stable relationship

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excitation transfer

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the process by which arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus

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self-disclosure

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revelations about the self that a person makes to others

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prosocial behaviors

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actions intended to benefit others

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egoistic

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motivated by the desire to increase one's own welfare

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altrustic

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motivated by the desire to improve another's welfare

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bystander effect

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the effect whereby the presence of others inhibits helping

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pluralistic ignorance

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the state in which people in a group mistakenly think that their own individual thoughts, feelings, or behaviors are different from those of the others in the group

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diffusion of responsibility

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the belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need

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audience inhibition

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reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers

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agression

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behavior intended to harm another individual

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proactive agression

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aggressive behavior whereby harm is inflicted as a means to a desired end

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reactive agression

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aggressive behavior where the means and the end coincide; harm is inflicted for its own sake

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social learning theory

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the theory that behavior is learned through the observation of others as well as through direct experience of rewards and punishments

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displacement

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aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access

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weapons effect

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the tendency that the likelihood of aggression will increase by the mere presence of weapons

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hostile attribution bias

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the tendency to perceive hostile intent in others

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rumination

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repeatedly thinking about and relieving an anger-inducing event, focusing on angry thoughts and feelings, and perhaps even planning or imagining revenge

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desensitization

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reduction in emotion-related physiological reactivity in response to a stimulus

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cutlivation

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the process by which the mass media constructs a version of social reality for the public

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misinformation effect

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the tendency for false post-event misinformation to become integrated into people's memory of an event

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jury nullification

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the jury's power to disregard, or "nullify", the law when it conflicts with personal conceptions of justice

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leniancy bias

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the tendency for jury deliberation to produce a tilt toward acquittal

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stressor

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anything that causes stress

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learned helplessness

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a phenomenon in which experience with an uncontrollable event creates passive behavior in the face of subsequent threats to well-being

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depressive explanatory style

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a habitual tendency to attribute negative events to causes that are stable, global, and internal

Front 113

self-efficacy

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a person's belief that he or she is capable of specific behavior required to produce a desired outcome in a given situation