Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
208 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
|
Accentuation principle |
The proposition that classification of items produces encoding biases |
|
|
|
Affect-infusion model |
Attempts to explain how mood effects a person’s ability to process information; cognition is infused with affect such that social judgements reflect current mood |
|
|
|
Associative network |
Model of memory in which nodes or ideas are connected by associative links along which cognitive activation can spread |
|
|
|
Behavioral decision theory |
Set of normative models for making accurate social influences |
|
|
|
Cognitive algebra |
Approach to the study of impression formation that focuses on how people combine attributes that have valence into an overall positive or negative impression |
|
|
|
Cognitive consistency |
People try to reduce inconsistency among their cognitions because they find inconsistency unpleasant |
|
|
|
Configural model |
Asch’s gestalt-based model of impression formation, in which central traits play a disproportionate role in configuring the final impression |
|
|
|
Implicit personality theories |
Describes the specific patterns and biases an individual uses when forming impressions based in a limited amount of initial information |
|
|
|
Stereotype |
Widely shared and simplified evaluative image of a social group and its members |
|
|
|
Social judgeability |
Perception of whether it is socially acceptable to judge a specific target |
|
|
|
Schema |
Cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus |
|
|
|
Social identity theory |
A theory that predicts certain inter group behaviors on the basis of perceived group status differences |
|
|
|
Three ways schemas can change |
Bookkeeping: slow change in the face of accumulating evidence Conversion: sudden and massive changes once a critical mass of disconfirming evidence has accumulated Subtyping: schemas morph into a subcategory to accommodate disconfirming evidence |
|
|
|
Person memory organised by person or group |
We can organise information about people in two different ways; Cluster attributes under individual people, if cluster people under attributes or groups |
|
|
|
Social inference |
Addresses inferential processes that we use to identify, sample and combine information |
|
|
|
Normative models |
Ideal processes for making accurate social inferences |
|
|
|
Base-rate information |
Pallid, factual, statistical information about an entire class of events |
|
|
|
Illusory correlation |
Cognitive exaggeration of the degree of co-occurrence of two stimuli or events, or the perception of a co-occurrence where none exists |
|
|
|
Reductionism |
Explanation of a phenomenon in terms of the language and concepts of a lower level of analysis, usually with a loss of explanatory power |
|
|
|
Attribution |
The process of assigning a cause to our own behavior and that if others |
|
|
|
Naive psychologists |
Model of social cognition that characterizes people as using ration, scientific-like, cause-effect analyses to understand their world |
|
|
|
Internal attribution |
Process of assigning the cause of our own or others behavior to internal if dispositional factors |
|
|
|
External attribution |
Assigning the cause of our own or others behavior to external or environmental factors |
|
|
|
Correspondent inference |
Makes behavior predictable. People attributes a person’s behavior to underlying dispositions. We draw on five sources of information: Act was freely chosen Act produced a non-common effect Act was not considered socially desirable Act had a direct impact on us Act seemed intended to affect us |
|
|
|
Non-common effects |
Effects of behavior that are relatively exclusive to that behavior rather than other behaviors |
|
|
|
Outcome bias |
Belief that the outcome of behavior were intended by the person who chose the behavior |
|
|
|
Covariation model |
Kelley’s attribution theory says people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a Certain way. That people decide what attributions to make after considering the consistency and distinctiveness of a person’s behavior and then the degree of consensus among other observers in their reaction to the person’s behavior |
|
|
|
Consistency information |
Information about the extent to which a behavior Y always co-occurs with a stimulus X. High or low consistency |
|
|
|
Distinctiveness information |
Information about whether a persons reaction occurs only with one stimulus or is a common reaction to many stimuli. High or low distinctiveness |
|
|
|
Consensus information |
Information about the extent to which other people react in the day way to a stimulus X. High or low consensus |
|
|
|
Self perception theory |
Bem’s idea that we gain knowledge of ourselves only by making self-attributions. |
|
|
|
Cognitive miser |
A model of social cognition that characterizes people as using the least complex and demanding cognitions that are able to produce generally adaptive behaviors |
Motivated tactician |
|
|
Correspondence bias |
Attribution bias in which people have an inflated tendency to see behavior as corresponding to stable underlying personality attributes |
Fundamental attribution error |
|
|
Essentialism |
Behavior is considered to reflect underlying and immutable properties of people or the groups they belong to. A way of stereotyping |
|
|
|
Actor-observer effect |
The tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and other’s internally. An extension of the correspondence buas |
|
|
|
False-consensus effect |
Seeing your own behavior as typical |
|
|
|
Self-serving bias |
The habit of a person taking credit for positive events or outcomes, but blaming outside factors for negative events |
|
|
|
Self-handicapping |
Publicly making advance external attributions for our anticipated failure or poor performance in a fourthcoming event |
|
|
|
Belief in a just world |
Belief that the world is a just and predictable place, where good things happen to good people |
|
|
|
Intergroup attribution |
The process of assigning the cause of one’s own or others behavior to group membership |
|
|
|
Ethnocentrism |
Evaluative preference for all aspects of our own group relative to other groups. An in-group serving bias. Positive behavior by in group and negative behavior by outgroup are internally attributed. Negative behavior by ingroup and positive behavior by outgroup is externally attributed |
|
|
|
Ultimate attribution error |
Tendency to attribute bad outgroup and good ingroup behavior internally, and to attribute good outgroup and bad ingroup behavior externally |
|
|
|
Social identity theory |
A theory that predicts certain intergroup behaviors on the basis of perceived group status differences. People drive their social identity from the groups they belong to. |
|
|
|
Social representations |
Collectively elaborated explanations of unfamiliar and complex phenomena that transform them into a familiar and simple form |
|
|
|
Wundt’s social psychology |
Dealt with collective phenomena like language, religion, customs and myths |
|
|
|
Symbolic interactionism |
Theory of how the self emerges from human interaction, which involves people trading symbols that are usually consensual and represent abstract properties rather than concrete objects |
|
|
|
Looking-glass self |
Forming our self concept from seeing ourselves as others see us |
|
|
|
Looking-glass self |
Forming our self concept from seeing ourselves as others see us |
|
|
|
The private and public self |
Scheier distinguished between two types of self. One with your private thought, feelings and attitudes and one how other people see you |
|
|
|
Deindividuation |
A process whereby people lose their sense of socialized individual identity and engage in unsocialized behaviors |
|
|
|
Self-discrepancy theory |
Higgins’s theory about three types of self-schema. The actual, the ideal and the ought self; how we are, how we would like to be and how we think we should be |
|
|
|
Self-regulation |
Strategies we use to match our behavior to an ideal or ought self |
|
|
|
Regulatory focus theory |
Higgins’s theory that people have two separate tell-regulatory systems. Promotion system; consented with the attainment of ones hopes and aspirations- ones ideals. And prevention system; concerned with the fulfillment of ones duties and obligations- ones oughts |
|
|
|
Over justification effect |
In the absence of obvious external determinants of our behavior, we assume that we freely choose the behavior because we enjoy it |
|
|
|
Social comparison theory |
Describes how people learn about themselves through comparisons with others |
|
|
|
Self-evaluation maintenance model |
According to Tesser’s we try to downplay our similarity to the other person or withdraw from our relationship with that person |
|
|
|
Social identity |
That part of our self-concept that derived from our membership in social groups |
|
|
|
Social identity |
That part of our self-concept that derived from our membership in social groups |
|
|
|
Personal identity |
The self defines in terms of unique personal attributes or unique interpersonal relationships |
|
|
|
Actor-observer effect |
Tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others behavior internally |
|
|
|
Social identity theory |
A theory about both self and identity, and group and intergroup behavior. Based on self-categorization, social comparison and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of ingroup-defining properties |
|
|
|
Social identity theory |
A theory about both self and identity, and group and intergroup behavior. Based on self-categorization, social comparison and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of ingroup-defining properties |
|
|
|
Self-categorization theory |
Turner and associates theory of how the process of categorizing oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaviors |
|
|
|
Prototype |
Cognitive representation of the typical/ideal defining features of a category |
|
|
|
Prototype |
Cognitive representation of the typical/ideal defining features of a category |
|
|
|
Meta-contrast principle |
The prototype of a group is that position within the group that has the largest ratio of differences to ingroup positions to differences to outgroup positions |
|
|
|
Self-assessment |
The motivation to seek out new information about ourselves in order to find out what sort of person we really are |
|
|
|
Self-verification |
Seeking out information that verifies and confirms what we already know about ourselves |
|
|
|
Self-enhancement |
The motivation to develop and promote a favorable image of self |
|
|
|
Self affirmation theory |
The theory that people reduce the impact of threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence in another area |
|
|
|
Narcissism |
A personality trait that is volatile, comprising self-live and an inflated or grandiose view of oneself |
|
|
|
Terror management theory |
The notion that the most fundamental human motivation is to reduce the terror of inevitability of death. Self-esteem may be centrally implicated in effective terror management |
|
|
|
Impression management |
People’s use of various strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light |
|
|
|
Impression management |
People’s use of various strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light |
|
|
|
Self monitoring |
Carefully controlling how we present ourselves. There are situational differences and individual differences |
|
|
|
Attitude |
A relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings and behavioral tendencies towards social significant objects, groups and symbols. A general feeling or evaluation, about some person, object or issue |
|
|
|
One competent attitude model |
An early definition of an attitude as consisting of affect towards or evaluation of the object |
|
|
|
One competent attitude model |
An early definition of an attitude as consisting of affect towards or evaluation of the object |
|
|
|
Two component attitude model |
Thurstones addition of a second component, claiming an attitude consists of a mental readiness to act. It also guides evaluative responses |
|
|
|
One competent attitude model |
An early definition of an attitude as consisting of affect towards or evaluation of the object |
|
|
|
Two component attitude model |
Thurstones addition of a second component, claiming an attitude consists of a mental readiness to act. It also guides evaluative responses |
|
|
|
Three component attitude model |
An attitude consists of cognitive, affective and behavioral components. This threshold division has an ancient heritage, stressing thought, feeling and action as basic to human experience |
|
|
|
Cognitive consistency theories |
A group of attitude theories stressing that people try to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement among their various cognitions |
|
|
|
Balance theory |
According to Heider, people prefer attitudes that are consistent with each other over those that are inconsistent. Focus in the P-O-X unit |
|
|
|
Sociocognitive model |
An attitude theory highlighting an evaluative component. Knowledge of an object is represented in memory along with a summary of how to appraise it |
|
|
|
Information integration theory |
The idea that a person’s attitude can be estimated by averaging across the positive and negative Ratings of the object |
|
|
|
Cognitive algebra |
Approach to the study of impressions formation that focuses on how people combine attributes that have valence into an overall positive or negative impression |
|
|
|
Multiple act criterion |
Term for a general behavioral index based in an average or combination of several specific behaviors |
|
|
|
Theory of reasoned action |
Fishbein and Ajzen’s theory of the relationship between attitudes and behavior. A specific attitude that has normative support predicts an intention to act, which then predicts actual behavior |
|
|
|
Theory of planned behavior |
Modification by Ajzen if the theory of reasoned action. It suggests that predicting a behavior from an attitude measure is improved if people believe they have control over that behavior |
|
|
|
Protection motivation theory |
Focuses on how people can protect their health, maintain better practices and avoid risky behavior |
|
|
|
Self-efficacy |
Expectation that we have about our capacity to succeed in particular tasks |
|
|
|
Automatic activation |
According to Fazio, attitudes that have a string evaluative link to situational cues are more likely to come automatically to mind from memory |
|
|
|
Moderator variable |
A variable that qualifies an otherwise simple hypothesis with a view to improving it’s predictive power |
|
|
|
Mere exposure effect |
Mere exposure to an object on several occasions is likely to affect how we evaluate it |
|
|
|
Mere exposure effect |
Mere exposure to an object on several occasions is likely to affect how we evaluate it |
|
|
|
Evaluative conditioning |
The degree of liking for an object will change when the object is consistently paired with other stimuli that are either positive or negative |
|
|
|
Spreading attitude effect |
A liked or disliked person or attitude object may affect not only the evaluation of a second person directly associated but also others merely associated with the second person |
|
|
|
Spreading attitude effect |
A liked or disliked person or attitude object may affect not only the evaluation of a second person directly associated but also others merely associated with the second person |
|
|
|
Modeling |
Tendency for a person to reproduce the actions, attitudes and emotional responses exhibited by a real-life or symbolic model - observational learning |
|
|
|
Social representations |
Collectively elaborated explanations of unfamiliar and complex phenomena that transform them into a familiar and simple form |
|
|
|
Expectancy-value model |
Direct experience with an attitude object informs a person how much that object should be liked or disliked in the future |
|
|
|
Relative homogeneity effect |
Tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated |
|
|
|
Priming |
Activation of accessible categories or schemas in memory that influence how we process new information |
|
|
|
Impression management |
People’s use of various strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light |
|
|
|
One component attitude model |
An attitude is the affect for or against a psychological object and the degree of positive or negative affect associated with some psychological object |
|
|
|
Two-component attitude model |
Allport added a second component to Thurstone´s affect. - a state of mental readiness. Attitudes can only be inferred by examining our own mental processes introspectively |
|
|
|
Three komponent attitude model |
defining attitudes of consisting of thoughts & ideas, a cluster of feelings, likes & dislikes and behavioral intentions. |
|
|
|
schema |
a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes |
|
|
|
Cognitive consistency theories |
a group of attitude theories stressing that people try to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement among their various cognitions |
|
|
|
Balance theory |
Heiders theory saying that people prefer attitudes that are consistent with each other over those that are inconsistent. A Person (P) tries to maintain consistency in attitudes to, and relationships with, other people (O) and elements of the environment (X) |
|
|
|
Sociocognitive model |
Model proposing that attitudes have a cognitive representation in memory |
|
|
|
information integration theory |
the idea that a person’s attitude can be estimated by averaging across the positive and negative ratings of the object |
|
|
|
Multiple-act criterion |
term for a general behavioral index based on an average or combination of several specific behaviors |
|
|
|
Theory of reasoned action |
aims to explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviors with human action. Encapsulating three processes of beliefs, intention and action and includes subjective norm, attitude towards the behavior, behavioral intention and behavior being the action performed |
|
|
|
Theory of planned behavior |
modification of the theory of reasoned action. Suggesting that predicting a behavior from an attitude measure is improved if people believe they have control over that behavior |
|
|
|
Protection motivation theory |
adopting a healthy behavior requires cognitive balancing between the perceived threat of illness and one’s capacity to cope with the health regimen |
|
|
|
Self-efficacy |
expectations that we have about our capacity to succeed in particular tasks |
|
|
|
Moderator variables |
a variable that qualifies an otherwise simple hypothesis with a view to improve its predictive power- a causes b but only when c is present |
|
|
|
Attitude formation |
the process of forming our attitudes, mainly from our own experiences, the influence of others and our emotional reactions |
|
|
|
Mere exposure effect |
repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object |
|
|
|
Evaluative conditioning |
A stimulus will become more liked or less liked when it is consistently paired with stimuli that are either positive or negative |
|
|
|
spreading attitude effect |
a liked or disliked person may affect not only the evaluation of a second person directly associated but also others merely associated with the second person |
|
|
|
Self-perception theory |
bem´s idea that people acquire knowledge about what kind of person they are, and their attitudes from examining their own behavior and asking why you did that.We infer our own attitudes from our own behavior |
|
|
|
Social representations |
collectively elaborated explanations of unfamiliar and complex phenomena tat transform them into a familiar and simple form |
|
|
|
Expectancy-value model |
direct experience with an attitude object informs a person how much that object should be liked or dislikes in the future |
|
|
|
Semantic differential |
an attitude measure that asks for a rating on a scale composed of bipolar adjectives |
|
|
|
Thurstone scale |
an 11-point scale with 22 items, 2 for each point. Each item has a value ranging from very unfavorable to very favorable. |
|
|
|
Liker scale |
scale that evaluates how strongly people agree or disagree with favorable or unfavorable statements about an attitude object |
|
|
|
Acquiescent response set |
tendency to agree with items in an attitude questionnaire. This leads to an ambiguity in interpretation if a high score on an attitude questionnaire can be obtained only by agreeing with all or most items |
|
|
|
Unidimensionality |
a guttman scale consists of a single dimension, low to high. It is also cumulative- agreement with the highest scoring item implies agreement with all lower scoring items |
|
|
|
Gutteman scale |
a scale that contains either favorable or unfavorable statements arranged hierarchically. Agreement with a strong statement implies agreement with weaker ones- disagreement with a weak one implies disagreement with stronger ones |
|
|
|
Social neuroscience |
exploration of brain activity associated with social cognition and social psychological processes and phenomena |
|
|
|
Relative homogeneity effect |
tendency to see outgrip members as all the same, and in-group members as more differentiated |
|
|
|
Unobtrusive measures |
observational approaches that neither intrude on the processes being studied nor cause people to behave unnaturally |
|
|
|
Bogus pipeline technique |
a measurement technique that leads people to believe that a lie detector can monitor their emotional responses thus measuring their true attitudes |
|
|
|
priming |
activation of accessible categories or schemas in memory that influence how we process new information |
|
|
|
Implicit association test |
reaction-time test to measure attitudes- particularly unpopular attitudes that people might conceal |
|
|
|
Impression management |
people´s use of vicarious strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light |
|
|
|
Cognitive dissonance |
state of psychological tension produced by simultaneously having two opposing cognitions. People are motivated to reduce the tension, often by changing or rejecting one of the cognitions. Festinger proposed that we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviors and try to reduce tension from inconsistency among these elements |
|
|
|
Persuasive communication |
messages intended to change an attitude and related behaviors of an audience |
|
|
|
Third-person effect |
most people think that they are less influenced than others by advertisement |
|
|
|
Sleeper effect |
the impact of a persuasive message can increase over time when a discounting cue, such as an invalid source, can no longer be recalled |
|
|
|
Moderator variable |
a variable that qualifies an otherwise simple hypothesis with a view to improving its predictive power |
|
|
|
Disconfirmation bias |
The phenomenon in which people tend to believe and accept evidence that supports their prior beliefs, while dismissing evidence that refutes their beliefs |
|
|
|
elaboration-likelihood model |
A dual process theory describing the change in attitudes. Proposing the use of two major routes to persuasion; the central route where persuasion results from careful and thoughtful consideration. And the peripheral route, persuasion resulting from a person’s association with positive or negative cues in the stimulus or making simple inferences |
|
|
|
heuristic-systematic model |
model of attitude change, claiming that when people tend to a message carefully, they use systematic processing. Otherwise they process information by using heuristics, or mental short-cuts |
|
|
|
compliance |
superficial, public and transitory change in behavior and expressed attitudes in response to requests, coercion or group pressure |
|
|
|
Ingratiation |
strategic attest to get someone to like you in order to obtain compliance with a request |
|
|
|
Reciprocity principle |
Or reciprocity norm. Referring to an attempt to gain compliance by first doing someone a favor, or to mutual aggression /mutual attraction |
|
|
|
multiple requests |
tacitcs for gaining compliance using a two-step procedure where the first request functions as a set up for the second, real request |
|
|
|
Foot-in-the.door tactic |
multiple-request techinique to gain compliance, in which focal request is preceded by a smaller request that is bound to be accepted |
|
|
|
Door-in-the-face-tactic |
multiple-request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a larger request that is bound to be refused |
|
|
|
Low-ball tactic |
technique for inducing compliance I which a person who agrees to a request still feels committed after finding that there are hidden costs |
|
|
|
Cognitive consistency theories |
a group of attitude theories stressing that people try to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement among their various cognitions |
|
|
|
Selective exposure hypothesis |
People tent to avoid potentially dissonant information |
|
|
|
effort justification |
a special case of cognitive dissonance; inconsistency is experienced when a person makes a considerable effort to achieve a modest goal |
|
|
|
Induced compliance |
a special case of cognitive dissonance; inconsistency is experienced when a person is persuaded to behave in a way that is contrary to an attitude |
|
|
|
Post decisional conflict |
the dissonance associated with behaving in a counter-attitudinal way. Dissonance can be reduced by bringing the attitude into line with the behavior |
|
|
|
Representativeness heuristic |
a cognitive short-cut in which instances are assigned to categories or types on the basis of overall similarity or resemblance to the category |
|
|
|
Self-affirmation theory |
the theory that people reduce the impact of threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence in other area |
|
|
|
reactance |
Brehm´s theory that people try to protect their freedom to act. When they perceive that this freedom has been curtailed, they will act to regain it. |
|
|
|
Forewarning |
advance knowledge that one is to be the target of a persuasion attempt. Forewarning often produced resistance to persuasion |
|
|
|
Inoculation |
A way of making people resistant to persuasion. By providing them with a diluted counter-argument, they can build up effect refutations to a later stronger argument. |
|
|
|
social influence |
process whereby attitudes and behavior are influenced by the real or implied presence of other people |
|
|
|
Reference groups |
kelley´s term for a group that is psychological significant for our behavior and attitude according to how we behave in accordance or opposition with their norms |
|
|
|
Membership group |
kelley´s term for a group to which we belong by some objective external criterion |
|
|
|
Dual-process dependency model |
a general model of social influence in which two separate processes operate, dependency on others for social approval and for information about reality |
|
|
|
Agentic state |
if we enter an agent state, we can absolve ourselves of responsibility for what happens next |
|
|
|
conformity |
deep-seated, private and enduring change in behavior and attitudes due to group pressure |
|
|
|
Frame of reference |
complete range of subjectively conceivable positions on some attitudinal or behavioral dimension, which relevant people can occupy in a particular context |
|
|
|
Normative influence |
an influence to conform to the positive expectation of others, to gain social approval or to avoid social disapproval |
|
|
|
Social identity theory |
Theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorization, social comparison and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of in-group-defining properties |
|
|
|
referent informational influence |
social influence process proposed by social identity theory, about the pressure to perform to a group norm that defines oneself as a group member |
|
|
|
Meta-contrast principle |
the prototype of a group is that position within the group that has the larges ratio of differences to in-group positions vs differences to outgroup positions |
|
|
|
Conformity bias |
tendency for social psychology to treat group influence as a one-way process in which individuals or minorities alway conform to majorities |
|
|
|
Conversion effect |
when minority influence brings about a sudden and dramatic internal and private change in the attitudes of a majority |
|
|
|
Attribution |
the process of assigning a cause to our own behavior, and that of others |
|
|
|
Social impact |
the effect that other people have on our attitudes and behavior, usually as a consequence of factors such as group size, and temporal and physical immediacy |
|
|
|
Entiativity |
the property of a group that makes it seem like a coherent, distinct an unitary entity |
|
|
|
Social facilitation |
An improvement in the performance of well-learnt / easy tasks ans a deterioration in the performance of poorly learnt/difficult tasks in the mere presence of members of the same species |
|
|
|
audience effect |
impact of the presence of others on individual task performance |
|
|
|
Drive theory |
Zajonc´s theory that the physical presence of members of the same species instinctively causes arousal that motivates performance og habitual behavior patterns. |
|
|
|
Evaluation apprehension model |
the argument that the physical presence of members of the same specie causes drive because people have learnt to be apprehensive about being evaluated |
|
|
|
Distraction-conflict theory |
the physical presence of members of the same species is distracting and produces conflict between attending to the task and attending to the audience |
|
|
|
Task taxonomy |
group tasks can be classified to whether a division of labour is possible, whether there is a predetermined standard to be met, and how an individual’s impuls can contribute |
|
|
|
Process loss |
deterioration in group performance in comparison to individual performance due to the whole range of possible interferences among members |
|
|
|
Coordination loss |
deterioration in group performance compared with individual performance, due to problems in coordinating behavior |
|
|
|
Ringelmann effect |
individuals effort on a task diminishes as group size increases |
|
|
|
Social loafing |
a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task, compared with working alone or coactively |
|
|
|
Free-rider effect |
gaining the benefits of group membership by avoiding costly obligations of membership and by allowing other members to incur those costs |
|
|
|
Social impact |
the effect that other people have on our attitudes and behavior, usually as a consequence of factors such as group size, and temporal and physical immediacy |
|
|
|
Social compensation |
increased effort on a collective task to compensate for other group members actual, perceived or anticipated lack of effort or ability |
|
|
|
Cohesiveness |
the property of a group that affectively binds people, as group members, to one another and to the group as a whole, giving the group a sense of solidarity and oneness |
|
|
|
Group socialisation |
dynamic relationship between the group and its members that describes the passage of members through a group in terms of commitment and of changing roles |
|
|
|
Initiation rites |
often painful or embarrassing public procedure to mark group members movements from one role to another |
|
|
|
Cognitive dissonance |
state of psychological tension produced by simultaneously having two opposing cognitions. People are motivated to reduce the tension, often by changing or rejecting one of the cognitions. Festinger proposed that we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviors and try to reduce tension from inconsistency among these elements |
|
|
|
Ethnomethodology |
Method involving the violation of hidden norms to reveal their presence |
|
|
|
Frame of reference |
complete range of subjective conceivable positions on some attitudinal or behavioral dimension, which relevant people can occupy in a particular context |
|
|
|
Group structure |
division of a group into different roles that often differ with respect to status and prestige |
|
|
|
roles |
patterns of behavior that distinguish between different activities within the group, and that interrelate to one another for the greater good of the group |
|
|
|
Correspondence bias |
a general attribution bias in which people have an inflated tendency to see behavior as reflecting, corresponding to, stable underlying personality attributes |
|
|
|
Expectation states theory |
theory of the emergence of roles as a consequence of people status-based expectations about others performance |
|
|
|
Specific status characteristics |
information about those abilities of a person that are directly relevant to the groups task |
|
|
|
Diffuse status characteristics |
information about a person’s abilities that are only obliquely relevant to the groups task, and derive mainly from large-scale category memberships outside the group |
|
|
|
Subjective group dynamics |
a process where normative deviants who deviate towards an outgroup are more harshly treated than those who deviate away from the outgroup |
|
|
|
Uncertainty-identity theory |
to reduce certain uncertainty and to feel more comfortable about who they are, people choose to identify with groups that are distinctive, are clearly defined and have consensual norms |
|
|
|
Social ostracism |
exclusion from a group by common consent |
|
