Social Psychology 123

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social psychology

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the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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culture

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socially shared beliefs-widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. helps us make sense of our world

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social representations

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the tendency to ezaggerate after learning an outcome; one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out; also known as the "I knew it all along phenomenom"

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hindsight bias

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the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables

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correlational research

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the way a question or an issue is posed

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framing

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the experimental factor that a researcher manipulates

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independent variable

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the variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable

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dependent variable

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cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected

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demand characteristics

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the belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are

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spotlight effect

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illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others

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illusion of transparency

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a person's answers to the question, "Who am I?"

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self-concept

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beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

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self-schema

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images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future

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possible selves

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evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

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social comparison

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construing one's identity in relation to others

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interdependent self

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the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task

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planning fallacy

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overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events

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impact bias

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the human tendency to underestimate the speed and the strength of the "psychological immune system," which enables emotional recovery and resilience after bad things happen

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immune neglect

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differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciouscly controlled) attitudes toward the same object

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dual attitudes

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may change with education or persuasion

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verbalized explicit attitudes

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attitudes that change slowly, with practice that forms new habits

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implicit attitudes

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a person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth

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self-esteem

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a sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth.

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self-efficacy

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the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces

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locus of control

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the sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events

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learned helplessness

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the tendency to perceive oneself favorably

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self-serving bias

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a form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors

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self-serving attributions

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the adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action

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defensive pessimism

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the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors

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false consensus effect

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the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors

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false uniqueness effect

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explaining away outgroup member's positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group)

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group-serving bias

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protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure

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self-handicapping

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the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals

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self-presentation

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being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression

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self-monitoring

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activating particular associations in memory

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priming

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persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for one's belief is descredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

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belief perseverance

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incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it

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misinformation effect

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"explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious

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controlled processing

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"implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness, roughly corresponds to "intuition"

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automatic processing

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the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs

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overconfidence phenomenon

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a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

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confirmation bias

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a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgements

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heuristic

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the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member

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represenativeness heuristic

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a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace

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availability heuristic

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imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't

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counterfactual thinking

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perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

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illusory correlation

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perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are

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illusion of control

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the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average

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regression toward the average

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mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source

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misattribution

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the theory of how people explain other's behavior--for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations

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attribution theory

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attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits

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dispositional attribution

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attributing behavior to the environment

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situational attribution

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an effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someon'es behavior

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spontaneous trait inference

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the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior. (also called correspondence bias)

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fundamental attribution error

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a self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions

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self-awareness

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a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations

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behavioral confirmation