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159 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Correlational Approach to testing theories and hypothesis:
-Concerned with prediction
-Measure 2 or more variables and examine the degree to which they covary
3 explanations for observed correlations:
-The Causal Hypothesis
-The Reverse Causation Hypothesis
-The Third Variable problem
The Causal Hypothesis:
-
The Reverse Causation Hypothesis
-
The third variable problem
-
Experimental Method: why is it needed?
-addressed cause and effect
IV vs DV:
IV: Manipulated variable
DV: Measured variable
Essential features of Experimental Method:
-Experimental Control
-Random Assignment to Condition
Advantages and Disadvantages of Correltational Approach:
A:
D:
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Approach
A:
D:
Why is random assignment important?
-
External Validity:
Generalizability:
-Generalizing across people
-Generalizing across situations
Mudane Realism:
-
Psychological Realism:
-
Internal Vs External Validity
-
Scientific Reproducibility
-Meta Analysis
-Replication
Scientific Reproducibility: Meta-Analysis
-
Scientific Reproducibility: Replication
-
False Positive
Incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis (typically acceptable at 5%)
Why is false positive rate likely much higher than 5% in many scientific fields?
-Fraud (rare)

-Research degrees of freedom (not rare)
*Ambiguity in choice of analytic strategies
*Motivation to find significant effects
Minimizing False Positives:
-Minimize opportunities for motivated justifications
-Large-Scale Replication
In practice, replication does not guard against false positives. Why?
-Many reasons for null effects
-Prestigious outlets don't publish replications
-Replication studies require limited resources
-Scientific status tied to new discoveries
Deception:
-Why is it used?
-Safeguards against ethic breaches?
- _________________

-Informed Consent, Institutional Review Boards
(UW Human Subjects Division)
What factors threaten internal validity?
Demand Characteristics (cues to a subject that behaviors are expected/demanded), Evaluation apprehension (the desire of a subject to present themselves favorably), low levels of engagement, and experimenter expectancy effects.
Automatic Thinking
Thinking that is non-conscious, unintentional, involuntary, & effortless. It enables us to not start from scratch every time we encounter a new situation.
Controlled Thinking
Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, & effortful.
Availability Heuristic:

Influenced by?
-A mental shortcut- tendency to make judgment of the frequency od an event by the ease of recalling a similar situation.

Influences by: recency, vividness, and moods
Representative Heuristic:
The tendency to believe the probability of an occurrence depends on how well it matches our beliefs about what SHOULD occur. Includes the gambler's fallacy and base rate fallacy.
Simulation Heuristic
Tendency to judge the likelihood of a future event by the ease of imagining it.
Accessibility of Schemas:
*Chronic Accessibility
*Temporary Accessibility
Chronic Accessibility: The more developed the schema, the stronger the association.

Temporary: Something that requires priming before being brought to the minds forethought.
Accessibility of Schemas:
*Social Judgment Theory
Social Judgment Theory: The extent to which an individual accepts or rejects a message as it corresponds with their internal anchors
Shooter Bias
Social stereotypes and firearms-- quick decisions made with implicit attitudes
Hindsight bias:
The tendency to overestimate the probability that a known outcome would occur. The easier things are to imagine, the more likely they are judged to occur.
Counter-Factual Thinking
When people believe a different outcome would have occurred if different events had taken place. The easier it is to imagine how things could have been different the worse people feel when things go wrong.
Errors of ommission
Something that should be done is not done
Errors of commission
Performing an act incorrectly
Gamblers fallacy:
Part of the representative heuristic. Occurs when people believe that random events are self correcting.
Base rate fallacy:
The tendency to make judgments on the basis of representativeness rather than the prevalence of some characteristic in a sample.
Prospect theory
The tendency for people to be risk adverse for gains and risk seeking for losses. People prefer a certain, low pay off than a low probability high pay off. Alternatively, people would rather gamble on a less probable, more costly alternative than accept a certain low cost risk.
Holistic Thinking
Type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context
Analytic thinking:
Type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their context
Social Cognition
How people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
Complex, Information-Rich Social World
+
Limited Human Attention Capacity
Goal: Conserving mental effort

Simplification strategies:
-Cognitive shortcuts/heuristics
-Schemas
Schemas:
-Hypothetical cognitive structures that help guide attention. They provide organization, conserve mental effort, and help interpret world. Their accessibility is influenced by their chronic/temporary characteristics and can be primed.

-Help us make sense of the world

-Lead to automatic thinking
Once schemas are accessible, they can___________
influence our thinking and behavior
Schemas as a Cognitive Toolbox experiment:

-Cover story:

-Subject task:

-IV:

-DV:

Predictions:
-Cover story: Can people carry out 2 tasks simultaneously?

-Subjects study lists of traits of several people WHILE listening to a story

IV: Schematic Labels or No Labels

DV:
-Memory for schema consistent traits
-Memory for information from audio story

Predictions: If schemas conserve cognitive resource: memory should be better for the schema consistent traits, and even for the story
Schemas and Social Judgment experiment:
-Participants subliminally primed with components of Black stereotype of not

-Read paragraph about "Donald" and form judgments about him

Results: rated Donald as more hostile when primed with Black stereotype
-Effect happened without awareness, intention, or control
Priming: Metaphors and the bodies, "Dirty Thoughts" and judgments of morality
-Disgust (bad smells) can increase perceived severity of morally offensive behaviors
-"Washing away sins" (i.e. hands) can reverse this effect
schemas and Behavior: scrambles sentence experiment
-scrambled sentence included either neutral words or elderly stereotype words
-told experiment over, measured time it took subject to walk to elevator
Schemas and behaviors: stereotype priming experiment
-Wrote about the behavior, lifestyle, appearance, and lifestyle of the typical professor OR soccer hooligan

-no prime, 2 min prime, 9 min prime

60 questions trivia quiz
Can automatic social cognition be controlled? YES, but it requires:
-resources
-motivation
-lots of practive
Illusion of Free Will Studies (Wegner)
Sometimes we overestimate our perceptions of our control over thoughts (free will)
Thought Suppression (Wegner)
Sometimes controlled thinking backfires
"Ordinary Personology"
Scientific study of how ordinary people come to know about each other's temporary states (emotions, intentions, desires) and enduring dispositions (traits, beliefs, abilities)

-Ordinary personologists sometimes act like "everyday personality theorists"
-Tendency to underutilize situational information
Attribution Theory
A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior
Affect Blend:
A facial expression in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion
Consensus information:
Used in Kelly's Co-Variation Model
Covariation Model
A way of understanding people's behavior by looking at attributions about the actor, other people, and situations. Look at consensus info, consistency info, and distinctiveness.
Decode
To interpret the meaning of a nonverbal behavior other people express
Display Rules
Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display
Distinctiveness Information
Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
Emblems
Non-verbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture
Encode
To express or emit nonverbal behavior
External Attribution
The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in
Implicit Personality Theory
A type of Schema people used to group various kinds of personality traits together
Internal Attribution
The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something internal within that person
Nonverbal communication:

Definition:
Relies on:
Can communicate:
Intentional or unintentional communication that relies on:
-Tone of voice
-Gestures
-Body position and movement
-Touch
-Gaze

Can communicate: emotion, attitudes, personality traits, and facilitate verbal communication
Social Perception
The study of how we form impressions and make inferences about other people
Correspondent Inference Theory
Unique and unusual/undesirable consequences of behavior lead us to draw inferences about people. To explain people's behavior we look to see if it is freely chosen, social acceptable, and if it yields uncommon effects.
Discounting
When people discount characteristics when the situation demands characteristic
Augmenting
People augment characteristics when the situation discourages it
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to overestimate dispositions as causes of behavior and underestimate situational influences.

Can be caused by perceptual salience, culture, and lack of cognitive resources.

At heart, people are personality theorists (at least in the West)
Perceptual Salience
Tendency to assign attributions to what is easily observed
Gilbert's 2-Step Process
Failing to complete this helps explain the FAE. Step 1: Categorization (identifying actions) and Characterization (drawing dispositional inferences).

Step 2: Correction (adjusting inferences with situational info).
Actor-Observer Bias/Differences
An attributional bias. The tendency to see others' behavior as more dispositionally caused than ones' own.

Due to perceptual salience and information availability.
The Self: Causal Theories
Theories about the cause of one's own feelings and behaviors, often learnt from culture
Downward Social Comparison
Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
Extrinsic Motivation
Desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
Fixed Mindset
The idea that we have a set amount of ability that cannot change
Growth Mindset
The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
Impression Management
The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen
Independent view of the self
self-definition focusing on one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions

Maintain independence from other by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing unique inner attributes
ingratiation
The process by which people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person
Interdependent view of the self
Self-definition focusing on relationships to other people

Attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with the,
Intrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage I an activity becaue we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
Introspection
The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
Misattribution of Arousal
The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
Narcissism
Combination of excessive self-love and lack of empathy toward others
Overjustification Effect
Tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic resons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
Performance-Contingent Rewards
Rewards that are based on how well one performs a task
Reasons-generated attitude change
Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible or easy to verbalize

-Difficult to put our feelings into words
-Reasons that come to mind sometimes differ from our "gut" feelings
-People assume that their reasons reflect their feelings, even if they do not
Self Awareness Theory
The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values
Global Self Esteem
The way people generally feel about themselves. General feelings of love and affection for the self. A stable disposition
Feelings of Self-Worth
Momentary emotional states, particularly those that arrive from positive or negative outcomes
Self-Evaluations
The way people evaluate their specific abilities. Also known as self-confidence of self-efficacy
Self-Handicapping
Strategy where people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming it on themselves
Self-Perception Theory
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
Social Comparison Theory
The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
Social Tuning
The process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes
Task-contingent rewards
Rewards given for performing a task regardless of performance
Terror Management Theory
The theory that holds self-esteem as a buffer to protect people from terrifying thoughts of their own mortality
Two-Factor theory of emotion
Idea that emotions are a combination of psychological arousal and assignment of a label for the arousal
Upward Social Comparison
Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are regarding a particular trait or ability
William James' Self:
Known, "Me"
*Self-concept

Knower, "I"
*Self-awareness

The self is comprised of:
1. The material self
2. The social self
3. The spiritual self
George Hurbert Mead
Theories that socialization and symbolic interaction help people define who they are
Self-Schemas
Mental structures that organize information about the self and influence what we notice, think, and remember
Self-Reference Effect
Tendency to remember information better if we can relate it to ourselves
Self-Complexity
Number of categories/roles an individual uses to describe one's self
Affective model of self-esteem:
Self-esteem develops early in life in response to heritable, temperamental factors and the nature of the parent-child relationship
Cognitive model of self-esteem
self-esteem arises from rational, judgmental processes in which people survey their characteristics, weigh them by importance, and combine information to arrive at a decision about one's worth
Sociocultural model of self-esteem
Culture dictates what's important and people judge their self-esteem off what they have that the culture values as valuable
Self-Enhancement Motive
Refers to the motivation people have to try to build, maintain, and enhance their feelings of self-worth
Self-Verification Theory
Individuals require ongoing validation of his or her world, including validation of one's identity, place in the world, and by those who are one's significant others

SVT argues that we are motivated to have others see us as we see ourselves
Sociometer theory
Understanding self-esteem in the context of fundamental need to belong (self-esteem evolved to tell us if we were doing something socially inappropriate)
Impact bias
People overestimate the impact an event has on individuals with time (lottery winners and paraplegics are equally happy after a year)
Immune bias
Tendency to underestimate our own coping processes (psychological immune system) following adverse results
Foalism
Tendency to make errors in predicting our happiness by over focusing on obvious, apparent factors (makes us focus only on obvious factors and judge happiness based off obvious factors)
Construal Level Theory
Depending on how psychologically close or far away an event is, the more likely we are to make judgments based on the event's low level details or high level meanings. High level construals are related to positive outcomes.
Psychological immune system
Non-conscious cognitive processes that help people change their views of the world so they can feel better about the world they find themselves in (synthetic happiness but think happiness is a thing to be found-- synthetic happiness is what we make when we don't get what we want and perceive synthetic happiness as inferior to natural happiness; natural happiness is when we get what we want)
Embodied Cognition
Nature of the mind is determined by the body
Cognitive Dissonance
People like for their behavior to be consistent with their beliefs and when they fail to this results in discomfort.

Discomfort caused by behaving in a way that runs counter to self-image
How is dissonance reduced?
1.Change Behaviour
2.Justify behaviour with reducing dissonant cognition
3.Justify behaviour with adding consonant cognition
Jones & Kehler Segregation Study
Pro-segregation participants remembered smart arguments about their beliefs and stupid arguments against their beliefs and vice versa with anti-segregation participants
Dissonance & Decision Making
The act of choosing forgoes an option
Post-Decision Dissonance
Making a choice reduces dissonance (by enhancing attractiveness of chosen decision and diminishing attractiveness of unchosen alternative); strongest when decisions are important,
Brehm Study
Women rated appliances and were told to pick between two equally rated appliance; chosen appliance rated higher in re-rating
Social Influence
The effect that words, actions, or mere presence have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior.
The ingredients/variables relevant when looking at a social context.
Construals
How individuals perceive, comprehend, and interpret the world around them, particularly the behavior or actions of others towards themselves.
Gestalt Psychology
It is impossible to understand the way an object is perceived simply by studying the building blocks of the perception. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
B=f(P,E)
Kurt Lewin. Personal factors + situational variables --> subjective perceptions --> behavior
Self-esteem Approach
Given the choice between distorting the world and feeling good or representing the world accurately people will often choose the first. They do this by having rosy retrospection, unrealistic optimism, and thinking they are better than average. Often this results to resolve cognitive dissonance.
Social Cognition Approach
Social construals are shaped by accuracy needs. People are more likely to gain accurate understandings in order to make correct decisions but in reality people often act on the basis of incomplete and inaccurately interpreted information.
The need for accuracy can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Expectation about another's behavior influences unwittingly leads to the predicted behavior
Theories
General ideas about how different constructs relate to each other. The "why" behind the "what".
Good theories are parsimonious, have breath and generativity.
Hypotheses
Specific predictions about how theories will be manifested.
The Experimental Method
Addresses cause and effect by manipulating one variable to see the effect it has on another. Uses one or more independent variable (manipulated variable) and a dependent variable (the measured variable).
Internal Validity
The extent to which the research design can show that x clearly causes y. Random assignment protects it.
External Validity
The extend to which the results from an experiment can generalize to other people and situations. Random sampling, mundane realism and psychological realism help maintain this.
Factorial Design
When 2 or more IVs and varied in the same experiment. Can produce a main effect (how one IV affects the DV) and interactions (when the effect of one variable changes at different levels of the second variable).
Top Down Processing
Requires that prior knowledge guides perception. Similar to automatic thinking.
Bottom Up Processing
Involves judgments that are based on data rather than inference. Similar to controlled thinking.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts that aid in decision making. They do not guarantee the correct decision has been made.
Anchoring and Adjusting
The tendency to start with an initial judgment and modify one's decision in order to make a final judgment.
Illusion of Control
A judgmental error, when people overestimate the covariation between their own actions and some other outcome.
Certainty Effect
Events going from impossible to possible or possible to impossible has a greater effect than events just changing in likelihood.
Framing Effect
The way you frame a decision changes perception. Relates to the prospect theory, people respond differently when it is framed as a loss or as a gain.
Discounting and Augmenting
Part of the correspondence inference theory. We attribute actions to the situation when a person acts in accordance to expectations and we attribute actions to personal factors when a person acts in a certain way despite circumstances discouraging it.
Self-serving bias
An Attributional Bias. We tend to believe that our successes are due to our dispositions but our failures are due to situational contexts.

This helps maintain self-esteem and self-presentation. Not doing this is part of depression
Attribution and Depression
Depressed persons often show a self-defeating pattern of attributions opposite of the self-serving bias
Attributions and Relationship Success
Successful couples make positive partner-serving attribution
Attributions are r________ and c_________

Attributions are ___________ prone

Attributions have important implications for ________
Attributions are rational and calculated

Attributions are error prone

Attributions have important implications for self-esteem, relationships, and mental health
Culture-specific nonverbal behavior
-Display rules
-Emblems/gestures
Women are better than men at encoding and decoding. Why? Exceptions?
Why they are better:
-Social Role Theory
-Power and Attention

Exception: lying
Nonverbal cues to Deception
Micro expressions- fleeting facial expressions
*Frown followed quickly by a smile

Interchannel discrepancies:
*Eyes inconsistent with face

Nonverbal aspects of speech:
*high pitch of voice, errors, hesitation

Eye contact:
*blink more, pupils dilate, high or low eye contact

Exaggerated facial expressions:
*Broad smile, overly regretful
Power posing and deceitful behavior
Power is linked with deceit
Why might people want negative self-view verified?
-Provides meaning/coherence
*comfort food for the self

-Predictability to others
*smooth interactions, structural/group stability

-Specific criticism, global acceptance
How do we self-verify?
-Create Opportunity Structures
*Identity Cues

*Selective interactions- seek out people who verify our self concepts

*Interpersonal prompts: we provoke reactions that confirm self-view, especially in the face of self-concept misconstrual
What leads us to become self aware?
-Situations (being watches, listening to self, mirrors)

-Individual differences
Post-Decision Dissonance strongest when decisions are_
-important
-difficult
-permanent