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159 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Correlational Approach to testing theories and hypothesis:
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-Concerned with prediction
-Measure 2 or more variables and examine the degree to which they covary |
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3 explanations for observed correlations:
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-The Causal Hypothesis
-The Reverse Causation Hypothesis -The Third Variable problem |
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The Causal Hypothesis:
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The Reverse Causation Hypothesis
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The third variable problem
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Experimental Method: why is it needed?
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-addressed cause and effect
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IV vs DV:
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IV: Manipulated variable
DV: Measured variable |
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Essential features of Experimental Method:
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-Experimental Control
-Random Assignment to Condition |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Correltational Approach:
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A:
D: |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Approach
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A:
D: |
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Why is random assignment important?
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-
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External Validity:
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Generalizability:
-Generalizing across people -Generalizing across situations |
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Mudane Realism:
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Psychological Realism:
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Internal Vs External Validity
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Scientific Reproducibility
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-Meta Analysis
-Replication |
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Scientific Reproducibility: Meta-Analysis
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Scientific Reproducibility: Replication
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False Positive
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Incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis (typically acceptable at 5%)
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Why is false positive rate likely much higher than 5% in many scientific fields?
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-Fraud (rare)
-Research degrees of freedom (not rare) *Ambiguity in choice of analytic strategies *Motivation to find significant effects |
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Minimizing False Positives:
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-Minimize opportunities for motivated justifications
-Large-Scale Replication |
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In practice, replication does not guard against false positives. Why?
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-Many reasons for null effects
-Prestigious outlets don't publish replications -Replication studies require limited resources -Scientific status tied to new discoveries |
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Deception:
-Why is it used? -Safeguards against ethic breaches? |
- _________________
-Informed Consent, Institutional Review Boards (UW Human Subjects Division) |
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What factors threaten internal validity?
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Demand Characteristics (cues to a subject that behaviors are expected/demanded), Evaluation apprehension (the desire of a subject to present themselves favorably), low levels of engagement, and experimenter expectancy effects.
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Automatic Thinking
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Thinking that is non-conscious, unintentional, involuntary, & effortless. It enables us to not start from scratch every time we encounter a new situation.
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Controlled Thinking
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Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, & effortful.
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Availability Heuristic:
Influenced by? |
-A mental shortcut- tendency to make judgment of the frequency od an event by the ease of recalling a similar situation.
Influences by: recency, vividness, and moods |
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Representative Heuristic:
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The tendency to believe the probability of an occurrence depends on how well it matches our beliefs about what SHOULD occur. Includes the gambler's fallacy and base rate fallacy.
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Simulation Heuristic
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Tendency to judge the likelihood of a future event by the ease of imagining it.
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Accessibility of Schemas:
*Chronic Accessibility *Temporary Accessibility |
Chronic Accessibility: The more developed the schema, the stronger the association.
Temporary: Something that requires priming before being brought to the minds forethought. |
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Accessibility of Schemas:
*Social Judgment Theory |
Social Judgment Theory: The extent to which an individual accepts or rejects a message as it corresponds with their internal anchors
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Shooter Bias
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Social stereotypes and firearms-- quick decisions made with implicit attitudes
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Hindsight bias:
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The tendency to overestimate the probability that a known outcome would occur. The easier things are to imagine, the more likely they are judged to occur.
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Counter-Factual Thinking
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When people believe a different outcome would have occurred if different events had taken place. The easier it is to imagine how things could have been different the worse people feel when things go wrong.
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Errors of ommission
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Something that should be done is not done
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Errors of commission
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Performing an act incorrectly
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Gamblers fallacy:
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Part of the representative heuristic. Occurs when people believe that random events are self correcting.
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Base rate fallacy:
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The tendency to make judgments on the basis of representativeness rather than the prevalence of some characteristic in a sample.
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Prospect theory
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The tendency for people to be risk adverse for gains and risk seeking for losses. People prefer a certain, low pay off than a low probability high pay off. Alternatively, people would rather gamble on a less probable, more costly alternative than accept a certain low cost risk.
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Holistic Thinking
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Type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context
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Analytic thinking:
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Type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their context
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Social Cognition
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How people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
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Complex, Information-Rich Social World
+ Limited Human Attention Capacity |
Goal: Conserving mental effort
Simplification strategies: -Cognitive shortcuts/heuristics -Schemas |
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Schemas:
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-Hypothetical cognitive structures that help guide attention. They provide organization, conserve mental effort, and help interpret world. Their accessibility is influenced by their chronic/temporary characteristics and can be primed.
-Help us make sense of the world -Lead to automatic thinking |
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Once schemas are accessible, they can___________
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influence our thinking and behavior
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Schemas as a Cognitive Toolbox experiment:
-Cover story: -Subject task: -IV: -DV: Predictions: |
-Cover story: Can people carry out 2 tasks simultaneously?
-Subjects study lists of traits of several people WHILE listening to a story IV: Schematic Labels or No Labels DV: -Memory for schema consistent traits -Memory for information from audio story Predictions: If schemas conserve cognitive resource: memory should be better for the schema consistent traits, and even for the story |
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Schemas and Social Judgment experiment:
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-Participants subliminally primed with components of Black stereotype of not
-Read paragraph about "Donald" and form judgments about him Results: rated Donald as more hostile when primed with Black stereotype -Effect happened without awareness, intention, or control |
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Priming: Metaphors and the bodies, "Dirty Thoughts" and judgments of morality
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-Disgust (bad smells) can increase perceived severity of morally offensive behaviors
-"Washing away sins" (i.e. hands) can reverse this effect |
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schemas and Behavior: scrambles sentence experiment
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-scrambled sentence included either neutral words or elderly stereotype words
-told experiment over, measured time it took subject to walk to elevator |
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Schemas and behaviors: stereotype priming experiment
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-Wrote about the behavior, lifestyle, appearance, and lifestyle of the typical professor OR soccer hooligan
-no prime, 2 min prime, 9 min prime 60 questions trivia quiz |
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Can automatic social cognition be controlled? YES, but it requires:
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-resources
-motivation -lots of practive |
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Illusion of Free Will Studies (Wegner)
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Sometimes we overestimate our perceptions of our control over thoughts (free will)
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Thought Suppression (Wegner)
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Sometimes controlled thinking backfires
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"Ordinary Personology"
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Scientific study of how ordinary people come to know about each other's temporary states (emotions, intentions, desires) and enduring dispositions (traits, beliefs, abilities)
-Ordinary personologists sometimes act like "everyday personality theorists" -Tendency to underutilize situational information |
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Attribution Theory
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A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior
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Affect Blend:
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A facial expression in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion
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Consensus information:
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Used in Kelly's Co-Variation Model
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Covariation Model
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A way of understanding people's behavior by looking at attributions about the actor, other people, and situations. Look at consensus info, consistency info, and distinctiveness.
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Decode
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To interpret the meaning of a nonverbal behavior other people express
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Display Rules
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Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display
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Distinctiveness Information
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Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
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Emblems
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Non-verbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture
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Encode
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To express or emit nonverbal behavior
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External Attribution
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The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in
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Implicit Personality Theory
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A type of Schema people used to group various kinds of personality traits together
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Internal Attribution
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The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something internal within that person
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Nonverbal communication:
Definition: Relies on: Can communicate: |
Intentional or unintentional communication that relies on:
-Tone of voice -Gestures -Body position and movement -Touch -Gaze Can communicate: emotion, attitudes, personality traits, and facilitate verbal communication |
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Social Perception
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The study of how we form impressions and make inferences about other people
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Correspondent Inference Theory
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Unique and unusual/undesirable consequences of behavior lead us to draw inferences about people. To explain people's behavior we look to see if it is freely chosen, social acceptable, and if it yields uncommon effects.
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Discounting
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When people discount characteristics when the situation demands characteristic
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Augmenting
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People augment characteristics when the situation discourages it
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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The tendency to overestimate dispositions as causes of behavior and underestimate situational influences.
Can be caused by perceptual salience, culture, and lack of cognitive resources. At heart, people are personality theorists (at least in the West) |
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Perceptual Salience
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Tendency to assign attributions to what is easily observed
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Gilbert's 2-Step Process
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Failing to complete this helps explain the FAE. Step 1: Categorization (identifying actions) and Characterization (drawing dispositional inferences).
Step 2: Correction (adjusting inferences with situational info). |
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Actor-Observer Bias/Differences
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An attributional bias. The tendency to see others' behavior as more dispositionally caused than ones' own.
Due to perceptual salience and information availability. |
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The Self: Causal Theories
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Theories about the cause of one's own feelings and behaviors, often learnt from culture
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Downward Social Comparison
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Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
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Extrinsic Motivation
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Desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
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Fixed Mindset
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The idea that we have a set amount of ability that cannot change
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Growth Mindset
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The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
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Impression Management
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The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen
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Independent view of the self
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self-definition focusing on one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions
Maintain independence from other by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing unique inner attributes |
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ingratiation
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The process by which people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person
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Interdependent view of the self
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Self-definition focusing on relationships to other people
Attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with the, |
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Intrinsic Motivation
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The desire to engage I an activity becaue we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
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Introspection
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The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
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Misattribution of Arousal
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The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
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Narcissism
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Combination of excessive self-love and lack of empathy toward others
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Overjustification Effect
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Tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic resons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
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Performance-Contingent Rewards
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Rewards that are based on how well one performs a task
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Reasons-generated attitude change
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Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible or easy to verbalize
-Difficult to put our feelings into words -Reasons that come to mind sometimes differ from our "gut" feelings -People assume that their reasons reflect their feelings, even if they do not |
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Self Awareness Theory
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The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values
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Global Self Esteem
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The way people generally feel about themselves. General feelings of love and affection for the self. A stable disposition
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Feelings of Self-Worth
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Momentary emotional states, particularly those that arrive from positive or negative outcomes
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Self-Evaluations
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The way people evaluate their specific abilities. Also known as self-confidence of self-efficacy
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Self-Handicapping
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Strategy where people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming it on themselves
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Self-Perception Theory
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The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
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Social Comparison Theory
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The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
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Social Tuning
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The process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes
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Task-contingent rewards
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Rewards given for performing a task regardless of performance
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Terror Management Theory
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The theory that holds self-esteem as a buffer to protect people from terrifying thoughts of their own mortality
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Two-Factor theory of emotion
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Idea that emotions are a combination of psychological arousal and assignment of a label for the arousal
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Upward Social Comparison
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Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are regarding a particular trait or ability
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William James' Self:
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Known, "Me"
*Self-concept Knower, "I" *Self-awareness The self is comprised of: 1. The material self 2. The social self 3. The spiritual self |
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George Hurbert Mead
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Theories that socialization and symbolic interaction help people define who they are
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Self-Schemas
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Mental structures that organize information about the self and influence what we notice, think, and remember
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Self-Reference Effect
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Tendency to remember information better if we can relate it to ourselves
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Self-Complexity
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Number of categories/roles an individual uses to describe one's self
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Affective model of self-esteem:
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Self-esteem develops early in life in response to heritable, temperamental factors and the nature of the parent-child relationship
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Cognitive model of self-esteem
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self-esteem arises from rational, judgmental processes in which people survey their characteristics, weigh them by importance, and combine information to arrive at a decision about one's worth
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Sociocultural model of self-esteem
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Culture dictates what's important and people judge their self-esteem off what they have that the culture values as valuable
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Self-Enhancement Motive
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Refers to the motivation people have to try to build, maintain, and enhance their feelings of self-worth
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Self-Verification Theory
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Individuals require ongoing validation of his or her world, including validation of one's identity, place in the world, and by those who are one's significant others
SVT argues that we are motivated to have others see us as we see ourselves |
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Sociometer theory
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Understanding self-esteem in the context of fundamental need to belong (self-esteem evolved to tell us if we were doing something socially inappropriate)
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Impact bias
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People overestimate the impact an event has on individuals with time (lottery winners and paraplegics are equally happy after a year)
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Immune bias
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Tendency to underestimate our own coping processes (psychological immune system) following adverse results
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Foalism
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Tendency to make errors in predicting our happiness by over focusing on obvious, apparent factors (makes us focus only on obvious factors and judge happiness based off obvious factors)
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Construal Level Theory
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Depending on how psychologically close or far away an event is, the more likely we are to make judgments based on the event's low level details or high level meanings. High level construals are related to positive outcomes.
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Psychological immune system
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Non-conscious cognitive processes that help people change their views of the world so they can feel better about the world they find themselves in (synthetic happiness but think happiness is a thing to be found-- synthetic happiness is what we make when we don't get what we want and perceive synthetic happiness as inferior to natural happiness; natural happiness is when we get what we want)
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Embodied Cognition
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Nature of the mind is determined by the body
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Cognitive Dissonance
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People like for their behavior to be consistent with their beliefs and when they fail to this results in discomfort.
Discomfort caused by behaving in a way that runs counter to self-image |
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How is dissonance reduced?
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1.Change Behaviour
2.Justify behaviour with reducing dissonant cognition 3.Justify behaviour with adding consonant cognition |
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Jones & Kehler Segregation Study
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Pro-segregation participants remembered smart arguments about their beliefs and stupid arguments against their beliefs and vice versa with anti-segregation participants
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Dissonance & Decision Making
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The act of choosing forgoes an option
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Post-Decision Dissonance
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Making a choice reduces dissonance (by enhancing attractiveness of chosen decision and diminishing attractiveness of unchosen alternative); strongest when decisions are important,
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Brehm Study
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Women rated appliances and were told to pick between two equally rated appliance; chosen appliance rated higher in re-rating
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Social Influence
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The effect that words, actions, or mere presence have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior.
The ingredients/variables relevant when looking at a social context. |
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Construals
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How individuals perceive, comprehend, and interpret the world around them, particularly the behavior or actions of others towards themselves.
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Gestalt Psychology
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It is impossible to understand the way an object is perceived simply by studying the building blocks of the perception. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
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B=f(P,E)
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Kurt Lewin. Personal factors + situational variables --> subjective perceptions --> behavior
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Self-esteem Approach
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Given the choice between distorting the world and feeling good or representing the world accurately people will often choose the first. They do this by having rosy retrospection, unrealistic optimism, and thinking they are better than average. Often this results to resolve cognitive dissonance.
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Social Cognition Approach
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Social construals are shaped by accuracy needs. People are more likely to gain accurate understandings in order to make correct decisions but in reality people often act on the basis of incomplete and inaccurately interpreted information.
The need for accuracy can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies. |
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
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Expectation about another's behavior influences unwittingly leads to the predicted behavior
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Theories
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General ideas about how different constructs relate to each other. The "why" behind the "what".
Good theories are parsimonious, have breath and generativity. |
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Hypotheses
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Specific predictions about how theories will be manifested.
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The Experimental Method
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Addresses cause and effect by manipulating one variable to see the effect it has on another. Uses one or more independent variable (manipulated variable) and a dependent variable (the measured variable).
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Internal Validity
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The extent to which the research design can show that x clearly causes y. Random assignment protects it.
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External Validity
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The extend to which the results from an experiment can generalize to other people and situations. Random sampling, mundane realism and psychological realism help maintain this.
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Factorial Design
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When 2 or more IVs and varied in the same experiment. Can produce a main effect (how one IV affects the DV) and interactions (when the effect of one variable changes at different levels of the second variable).
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Top Down Processing
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Requires that prior knowledge guides perception. Similar to automatic thinking.
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Bottom Up Processing
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Involves judgments that are based on data rather than inference. Similar to controlled thinking.
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Heuristics
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Mental shortcuts that aid in decision making. They do not guarantee the correct decision has been made.
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Anchoring and Adjusting
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The tendency to start with an initial judgment and modify one's decision in order to make a final judgment.
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Illusion of Control
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A judgmental error, when people overestimate the covariation between their own actions and some other outcome.
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Certainty Effect
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Events going from impossible to possible or possible to impossible has a greater effect than events just changing in likelihood.
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Framing Effect
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The way you frame a decision changes perception. Relates to the prospect theory, people respond differently when it is framed as a loss or as a gain.
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Discounting and Augmenting
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Part of the correspondence inference theory. We attribute actions to the situation when a person acts in accordance to expectations and we attribute actions to personal factors when a person acts in a certain way despite circumstances discouraging it.
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Self-serving bias
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An Attributional Bias. We tend to believe that our successes are due to our dispositions but our failures are due to situational contexts.
This helps maintain self-esteem and self-presentation. Not doing this is part of depression |
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Attribution and Depression
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Depressed persons often show a self-defeating pattern of attributions opposite of the self-serving bias
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Attributions and Relationship Success
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Successful couples make positive partner-serving attribution
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Attributions are r________ and c_________
Attributions are ___________ prone Attributions have important implications for ________ |
Attributions are rational and calculated
Attributions are error prone Attributions have important implications for self-esteem, relationships, and mental health |
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Culture-specific nonverbal behavior
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-Display rules
-Emblems/gestures |
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Women are better than men at encoding and decoding. Why? Exceptions?
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Why they are better:
-Social Role Theory -Power and Attention Exception: lying |
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Nonverbal cues to Deception
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Micro expressions- fleeting facial expressions
*Frown followed quickly by a smile Interchannel discrepancies: *Eyes inconsistent with face Nonverbal aspects of speech: *high pitch of voice, errors, hesitation Eye contact: *blink more, pupils dilate, high or low eye contact Exaggerated facial expressions: *Broad smile, overly regretful |
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Power posing and deceitful behavior
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Power is linked with deceit
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Why might people want negative self-view verified?
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-Provides meaning/coherence
*comfort food for the self -Predictability to others *smooth interactions, structural/group stability -Specific criticism, global acceptance |
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How do we self-verify?
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-Create Opportunity Structures
*Identity Cues *Selective interactions- seek out people who verify our self concepts *Interpersonal prompts: we provoke reactions that confirm self-view, especially in the face of self-concept misconstrual |
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What leads us to become self aware?
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-Situations (being watches, listening to self, mirrors)
-Individual differences |
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Post-Decision Dissonance strongest when decisions are_
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-important
-difficult -permanent |