Social Psych Chapter 3

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THE COGNITIVE SELF:

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SELF-CONCEPT

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Stated that "Some nonhuman animals, including chimpanzees, orangutans, and perhaps dolphins, have at least a primitive sense of self"

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(Boysen & Himes, 1999).

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By _______ years of age, the infant becomes aware of his or her gender as a boy or a girl.

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2

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At age _______, the child’s self-descriptions are likely to be based on physical features, such as hair color,

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4

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about age _____, the child is able to understand basic emotions and the concepts of traits, being able to make statements such as “I am a nice person (Harter, 1998).

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Six

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Stated that "about age six, the child is able to understand basic emotions and the concepts of traits, being able to make statements such as “I am a nice person"

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Harter

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a knowledge representation that contains knowledge about us, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals.

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Self Concept

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a variety of different cognitive aspects of the self

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Self Schemas

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These self-schemas can be studied using the methods that we would use to study any other schema. One approach is to use _________ to directly study the self in the brain.

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Neuroimaging

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is the most important of all our schemas, it has an extraordinary degree of influence on our thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

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Self Concept

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Stated That "Other research has found that information related to the self-schema is better remembered than information that is unrelated to it, and that information related to the self can also be processed very quickly"

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Lieberman, Jarcho, & Satpute, 2004).

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information that is processed in relationship to the self is particularly well remembered,

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Self Reference Effect

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is powerful evidence that the self-concept helps us organize and remember information.

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Self Reference Effect

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But how can we measure that specific content? One way is by using ___________

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Self Report Test

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All of the 20 items in the measure are exactly the same, but the person is asked to fill in a different response for each statement. This self-report measure, known as the _________

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Twenty Statements Test (TST),

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can reveal a lot about a person because it is designed to measure the most accessible—and thus the most important—parts of a person’s self-concept.

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Twenty Statements Test (TST),

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are an important component of the self-concept, and they are mentioned by many people when they describe themselves.

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Physical characteristics

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the specific and stable personality characteristics that describe an individual

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Personality Traits

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the sense of our self that involves our memberships in social groups.

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Social Identity

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three broad categories of characteristics (3)

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1. Physical

2. Personality

3. Social

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examined individuals’ free-text self-descriptions in the About Me section in their Facebook profiles.

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DeAndrea, Shaw, and Levine

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As well as indications of cultural diversity in the content of the self-concept, there is also evidence of ____________ between males and females from various cultures, with females, on average, giving more external and social responses to the TST than males (Kashima et al., 1995)

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parallel gender diversity

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also includes thoughts about our past self—our experiences, accomplishments, and failures—and about our future self—our hopes, plans, goals, and possibilities

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Self Concept

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"The self-concept also includes thoughts about our past self—our experiences, accomplishments, and failures—and about our future self—our hopes, plans, goals, and possibilities"

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Oyserman, Bybee, Terry, & Hart-Johnson, 2004).

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the extent to which individuals have many different and relatively independent ways of thinking about themselves (Linville, 1987; Roccas & Brewer, 2002).

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Self Complexity

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Stated That Self Complexity "is the extent to which individuals have many different and relatively independent ways of thinking about themselves"

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(Linville, 1987; Roccas & Brewer, 2002).

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is the extent to which one’s self-concept is clearly and consistently defined (Campbell, 1990).

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Self Concept Clarity

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Stated That "Self Clarity is the extent to which one’s self-concept is clearly and consistently defined."

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(Campbell, 1990).

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refers to the extent to which we are currently fixing our attention on our own self-concept.

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Self Awareness

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When our self-concept becomes highly accessible because of our concerns about being observed and potentially judged by others, we experience the publicly induced self-awareness known as _______ (Duval & Wicklund, 1972;)

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Self Consciousness

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Stated that "When our self-concept becomes highly accessible because of our concerns about being observed and potentially judged by others, we experience the publicly induced self-awareness known as self consciousness"

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(Duval & Wicklund, 1972;)Rochat, 2009).

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Emotions such as ________and ______ occur in large part because the self-concept becomes highly accessible, and they serve as a signal to monitor and perhaps change our behavior.

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Anxiety

Embarrassment

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"We become more self-aware when we are in front of a mirror, when a TV camera is focused on us, when we are speaking in front of an audience, or when we are listening to our own tape-recorded voice" (

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Kernis & Grannemann, 1988).

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—the loss of individual self-awareness and individual accountability in groups (Festinger, Pepitone, & Newcomb, 1952; Zimbardo, 1969) and become more attuned to themselves as group members and to the specific social norms of the particular situation (Reicher & Stott, 2011).

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deindividuation

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occurs when civilians engage in violent public disturbances

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Rioting

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One of the earliest and most influential perspectives on rioting was offered by French sociologist, _________(1841–1931).

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Gustav Le Bon

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In his book (Gustav Le Bon) ________described the transformation of the individual in the crowd.

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The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind, Le Bon (1895)

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Book of Gustav Le Bon (Date)

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1895

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Under this view, the individuals then become submerged in the crowd, lose self-control, and engage in antisocial behaviors.

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Psychological Crowd

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for instance, argued that members of large groups do not pay attention to other people as individuals and do not feel that their own behavior is being scrutinized. Under this view, being unidentified and thereby unaccountable has the psychological consequence of reducing inner restraints and increasing behavior that is usually repressed, such as that often seen in riots.

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Festinger et al

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argued that deindividuation involved feelings of reduced self-observation, which then bring about antinormative and disinhibited behavior. He also found out that participants engaged in more antisocial behavior when their identity was made anonymous by wearing Ku Klux Klan uniforms.

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Zimbardo

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Zimbardo argued that deindividuation involved feelings of reduced self-observation, which then bring about antinormative and disinhibited behavior. He also found out that participants engaged in more antisocial behavior when their identity was made anonymous by wearing ______ uniforms.

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Ku Klux Klan

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) found that when participants were able to mask their identities by wearing nurses uniforms, their deindividuated state actually led them to show more prosocial behavior than when their identities were visible to others

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Johnson and Downing

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developed by Reicher, Spears, and Postmes (1995).

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social identity model of deindividuation effects (Side)

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Developer of social identity model of deindividuation effects (SiDe)

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Reicher, Spears, and Postmes

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This perspective argues that being in a deindividuated state can actually reinforce group salience and conformity to specific group norms in the current situation. . According to this model, deindividuation does not, then, lead to a loss of identity

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social identity model of deindividuation effects (SiDe)

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concluded in his analysis of rioting in the United States in the 1960s, restraint and selectivity, as opposed to mindless and indiscriminate violence, were among the most crucial features of the riots.

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Fogelson

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describe it as being caused by a number of interlocking factors, including a sense of illegitimacy or grievance, a lack of alternatives to confrontation, the formation of a shared identity, and a sense of confidence in collective power.

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Reicher and Stott (2011)

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important recommendations for controlling rioting more effectively, including that: (4)

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1.Labeling rioters as “mindless,” “thugs,” and so on will not address the underlying causes of riots.

2. Indiscriminate or disproportionate use of force by police will often lead to an escalation of rioting behavior.

3. Law enforcement personnel should allow legitimate and legal protest behaviors to occur during riots, and only illegal and inappropriate behaviors should be targeted.

4. Police officers should communicate their intentions to crowds before using force.

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2 aspects of individual differences in self-awareness: (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975; Lalwani, Shrum, & Chiu, 2009)

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1. Private Self Consciousness

2. Public Self Consciousness

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refers to the tendency to introspect about our inner thoughts and feelings.

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Private Self Consciousness

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People who are high in ____________ tend to think about themselves a lot and agree with statements such as “I’m always trying to figure myself out” and “I am generally attentive to my inner feelings.”

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private self-consciousness

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in contrast, refers to the tendency to focus on our outer public image and to be particularly aware of the extent to which we are meeting the standards set by others

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Public Self Consciousness

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agree with statements such as “I’m concerned about what other people think of me,” “Before I leave my house, I check how I look,” and “I care a lot about how I present myself to others.

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Public Self Consciousness

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found that when college students from Canada (a Western culture) completed questionnaires in front of a large mirror, they subsequently became more self-critical and were less likely to cheat.

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Steve Heine and colleagues (2008)

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when we focus our attention on ourselves, we tend to compare our current behavior against our internal standards.

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Self Awareness Theory

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Proponent of Self Awareness Theory

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Duval and Wicklund

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states that when we perceive a discrepancy between our actual and ideal selves, this is distressing to us

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self-discrepancy theory

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Proponent of Self Descripancy Theory

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Higgins, Klein, & Strauman,

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found that people felt significantly more distressed when exposed to self-discrepancies while sitting in front of a mirror

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Philips and Silvia

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which is the discomfort that occurs when we respond in ways that we see as inconsistent.

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Cognitive Dissonance

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found that people who are given false negative feedback about their performance on an intelligence test, which presumably lead them to feel discrepant from their internal performance standards about such tasks, subsequently focused significantly more on a video playing in a room than those given positive feedback.

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Moskalenko and Heine (2002)

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suggests that people will try to reduce the threat to their self-concept posed by feelings of self-discrepancy by focusing on and affirming their worth in another domain, unrelated to the issue at hand.

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Self Affirmation Theory

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tested people’s social cognitive responses to hypotheses that were either threatening or non-threatening to their self-concepts, following exposure to either a self-affirming or non-affirming activity

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Munro and Stansbury

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conducted an experiment showing that individuals became more self-aware after viewing and updating their Facebook profiles, and in turn reported higher self-esteem than participants assigned to an offline, control condition. The increased self-awareness that can come from Facebook activity may not always have beneficial effects.

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Gonzales and Hancock

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conducted two experiments indicating that when individuals put personal photos and wall postings onto their Facebook accounts, they show increased self-awareness, but subsequently decreased ability to take other people’s perspectives.

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Chiou and Lee

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investigated the role of self-affirmation in Facebook usage and found that users viewed their profiles in self-affirming ways, which enhanced their self-worth.

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Toma and Hancock

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tested participants from a more individualistic nation (Canada) and a more collectivistic one (Japan) in a situation where they took a personality test and then received bogus positive or negative feedback

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Heine and Lehman

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"People do not generally focus on their self-concept any more than they focus on the other things and other people in their environments"

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Csikszentmihalyi & Figurski, 1982

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Research by _________ found that people who were interacting with others thought that other people were paying much more attention to them than those other people reported actually doing.

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Thomas Gilovich and colleagues (Gilovich, Medvec, & Savitsky, 2000)

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"Teenagers are particularly likely to be highly self-conscious, often believing that others are watching them"

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Goossens, Beyers, Emmen, & van Aken, 2002).

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"Because teens think so much about themselves, they are particularly likely to believe that others must be thinking about them, too"

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Rycek, Stuhr, McDermott, Benker, & Swartz, 1998).

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"asked groups of five students to work together on a “lie detection” task."

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Gilovich, Savitsky, and Medvec (1998

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Refers the positive (high self-esteem) or negative (low self-esteem) feelings that we have about ourselves.

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Self Esteem

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(high self-esteem)

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Positive

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low self-esteem)

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Low self esteem

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including how well we view our own performance and appearance, and how satisfied we are with our relationship with other people.

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Self Esteem

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A state that varies day to day and even hour to hour.

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Self Esteem

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THE FEELING SELF

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Self Esteem

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Can be measured using both implicit and explicit measures, and both approaches find that most people tend to view themselves positively.

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Self Esteem

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Numerous studies have used the _______ to assess people’s self-esteem in many areas of the world.

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Rosenberg Scale

Scale

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Participants worked a computer and were presented with a series of words , each of were categorize in one of two ways.

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Implicit Association Test

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Two ways in implicit association test. (2)

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1.One categorization decision involved whether the words are related to the self or to another person.

2.A second categorization involved determining whether words were pleasant or unpleasant

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According to _________ across many countries, women have been found to report lower self-esteem than men.

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Sprecher, Brooks and Avogo,

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found that self-esteem tends to decrease from childhood to early adolescence, and then rises steadily from adolescence into adulthood, usually until people are well in their sixties , after which point it begins to decline.

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Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling & Potter(2002

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One reason that many of us have positive self-esteem is because we are generally successful at creating _________

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Positive Lives

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Another way we can boost our self-esteem is through _________ with others .

Forming and maintaining satisfying relationships helps us to feel good about ourselves.

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Building Connections

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is a personality trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness.

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Narcissism

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_________ tend to agree with statements such as the following: “I know that I am good because everybody keep telling me so

”‘I can usually talk my way out of anything”

“I like to be the center of attention”

“I have natural talent for influencing people”

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Narcissist

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Narcissist tend to agree with statements such as the following: (4)

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1.I know that I am good because everybody keep telling me so”

2.‘I can usually talk my way out of anything”

3. “I like to be the center of attention”

4.“I have natural talent for influencing people”

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Processing Information to Enhance Self (proponent)

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Sanitioso, Kunda and Fong

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conducted an extensive review of the research literature to determine whether having high self-esteem was a helpful as many people seem to think it is.

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Baumister and Colleague

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__________ is not created in isolation, thus social institution influences our self- concept and self- esteem. We are not born with perceptions of ourselves as shy, interested in jazz, or charitable to others, such beliefs are determined by our observations of and interactions with others.

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Self

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Our Sense of Self is Influenced by Others’ Views of Us

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Looking Glass Self

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states that part of how we see ourselves comes from our perception of how others see us (Cooley, 1902).

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Looking Glass Self

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Proponent of Looking Glass Self

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Cooley

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They demonstrate how we think we are being perceived by others really can affect how we see ourselves

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Mark Baldwin’s work with his colleagues,

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conducted two experiments to test the hypothesis that our self-concepts derive partly from the way we imagine that we would be perceived by significant others. Their study proved that sometimes we end up evaluating ourselves as we imagine others would.

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Baldwin and Holmes

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occur when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling.

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Labeling Bias

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when we adopt others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.

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Self Labeling

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occurs when individuals turn prejudice directed toward them by others onto themselves. __________ has been found to predict more negative self-concept and poorer psychological adjustment in members of various groups, including sexual minorities.

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Internalized Prejudice

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Our Sense of Self Is Influenced by Comparisons with Others

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Social Comparison Theory

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occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about the appropriateness and validity of our opinions, and about our relative social status by comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of others.

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Social Comparison

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We attempt to create a positive image of ourselves through favorable comparisons with other who are worse off than we are.

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Downward Social Comparison

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one study ___________ had students apply for a job, and they also presented the students with another individual who was supposedly applying for the same job. When the other candidate was made to appear to be less qualified for the job, the downward comparison with the less qualified applicant made the students feel better about their own qualifications.

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Morse and Gergen (1970)

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We attempt to compare ourselves with others better than we are which results to lower self- esteem. Upward comparison may lower our self-esteem by reminding us that we are not as well off as others.

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Upward Social Comparison

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tested the hypothesis that people who were feeling anxious would prefer to affiliate with others rather than be alone because having others around would reduce their anxiety. He said that misery doesn’t just love any kind of company, it loves only miserable company.

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Stanley Schachter’s experiments

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Our Sense of Self Is Influenced by the Groups We Belong To

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Social Identity Theory

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asserts that we draw part of our sense of identity and self-esteem from the social groups that we belong to.

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Social Identity Theory

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We can gain self-esteem by perceiving ourselves as members of important and valued groups that make us feel good about ourselves.

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Social Identity Theory

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asked U.S. college students to list the groups that they identified with. the students reported belonging to a wide variety of groups and claimed that many of these groups provided them with social identities.

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Kay Deaux and her colleagues (Deaux, Reid, Mizrahi, & Ethier, 1995

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The categories that they listed included ethnic and religious groups (Asian, Jewish), political affiliations (conservative, Democrat), occupations and hobbies ( gardener, tennis player), personal relationships ( husband, girlfriend), and marginalized groups ( gay, homeless). You can see that these identities were likely to provide a lot of positive feelings for the individuals.

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Kay Deaux and her colleagues

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when our social groups are successful in meeting their goals to fuel our self-worth.

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Occassions

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studied the idea that we can sometimes enhance our self-esteem by basking in the reflected glory of our ingroups, which occurs when we use and advertise our ingroups’ positive achievements to boost our self-esteem.

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Robert Cialdini and his colleagues

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which occurs when we use and advertise our ingroups’ positive achievements to boost our self-esteem

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Basking in The reflecrive Glory

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those between ourselves and other ingroup members.

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Intragroup Comparisons

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asserts that our self-esteem can be threatened when someone else outperforms us, particularly if that person is close to us and the performance domain is central to our self-concept.

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Self Evaluation Maintenance Theory

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Proponent of Self Evaluation Maintenance Theory

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Tesser

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When threats occur, the theory (Self Maintenance Evaluation Theory) states that we will typically try to rebuild our self-esteem using one of three main strategies: (3)

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1. Distancing, we redefine ourselves as less close to the person in question.

2 . Redefine how important the trait or skill really is to your self-concept.

3. Improve on the ability in question.

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Our Sense of Self Is Influenced by the Audiences We Have

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Self Presentation

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The tendency to present a positive self-image to others, with the goal of increasing our social status, and it is a basic and natural part of everyday life.

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Self Presentation

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a sociologist, developed an influential theory of self-presentation and described it as a mainly honest process, where people need to present the parts of themselves required by the social role that they are playing in a given situation.

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Erving Goffman

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where we are trying to play the part required of us, and we trust that others are doing the same.

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Self Presentation is a Transparent Process

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Other theorists, though, have viewed self-presentation as __________ which may involve not always portraying ourselves in genuine ways (e.g., Jones & Pittman, 1982).

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a more strategic endeavor,

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Edward Jones and Thane Pittman (1982)described five self-presentation strategies, (5)

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1. Ingratiation

2. Intimidation

3. Exemplification

4. Supplication

5. Self Promotion

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They described five self-presentation strategies,

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Edward Jones and Thane Pittman

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is to create liking by using flattery or charm.

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Ingratiation

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is to create fear by showing that you can be aggressive.

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Intimidation

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is to create guilt by showing that you are a better person than the other.

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Exemplification

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is to create pity by indicating to others that you are helpless and needy.

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Supplication

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is to create respect by persuading others that you are competent.

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Self Promotion

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Example, People who overuse the ingratiation technique and who are seen as obviously and strategically trying to get others to like them are often disliked because of this

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Self-presentation backfires

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One concrete way to self-promote is to display our ____________

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positive physical characteristics.

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can also be pursued in our online social behaviors

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Self Promotion

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used survey methodology to investigate the relationship between personality traits, self-presentation and the use of check-ins on Facebook.

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Wang and Stefanone

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Interestingly, ________ was found to predict scores on a measure of exhibitionistic, self-promoting use of Facebook check-ins, which included items like “I check in so people know that I am with friends,” and “I expect friends to like or leave comments on my check-in status on Facebook.”

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Narcissism

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found that narcissistic personality scores were positively correlated with the amount of daily logins on Facebook and the duration of each login.

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Mehdizadeh

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explored self-presentation through language styles used in status updates, wall posts, and private messages from 79 participants.

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Bazarova, Taft, Choi, and Cosley (2013)

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Bazarova, Taft, Choi, and Cosley (2013) explored self-presentation through language styles used in status updates, wall posts, and private messages from 79 participants. The use of positive emotion words was correlated with self-reported self-presentation concern in status updates. This is consistent with the idea that people share positive experiences with Facebook friends partly as a __________

__________

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Self Enhancement Strategy

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analyzed the content of adolescents’ blog entries and concluded that a careful concern forself presentation was more central to their blogging behavior than direct interaction with others.

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Mazur and Kozarian

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found that self-presentational strategies were a consistent part of celebrity tweeting, often deployed by celebrities to maintain their popularity and image.

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Marwick and Boyd (2011)

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_______present themselves in an assertive way, by speaking and interrupting others, by visually focusing on the other person when they are speaking, and by leaning their bodies into the conversation

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Men

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_______ modest; they tend to create status by laughing and smiling, and by reacting more positively to the statements of others

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Women

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found that individuals from Iceland and Switzerland used less self-presentational behaviour than people from the United States.

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Konig, Haftseinsson, Jansen, & Stadelmann (2011)

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where we seek to build particular reputations with particular audiences.

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Longer-term self-presentational projects

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describe the unique capacity humans have to know one another by repute and argue that, accordingly, we are often engaged in a process of reputation management, which is a form of long-term self-presentation, where individuals seek to build and sustain specific reputations with important audiences.

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Emler & Reicher

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which is a form of long-term self-presentation, where individuals seek to build and sustain specific reputations with important audiences.

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Reputation Management

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found that, with some adolescents’ Facebook friends numbering in the hundreds or thousands, increasing numbers are moving to Twitter in order to reach a more selective audience.

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Wiederhold

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the tendency to be both motivated and capable of regulating our behavior to meet the demands of social situations (Gangestad & Snyder, 2000).

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Self Monitoring

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found an interaction effect: the students who had been classified as high self-monitors were more likely to mimic the behavior of the confederate when she was described as being the leader than when she was described as being the worker, indicating that they were “tuned in” to the social situation and modified their behaviour to appear more positively.

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Cheng and Chartrand

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is the most complex of all our schemas because it includes all of the images, desires, beliefs, feelings, and hopes that we have for and about ourselves.

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Self Concept

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The outcome when the self-concept is highly accessible and therefore becomes the focus of our attention.

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Self-awareness or Self-consciousness-

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occurs when we are introspective about our inner thoughts and feelings.

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Private Self Consciousness

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occurs when we focus on our public image.

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Public Self Consiousness

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can lead to increased perceptions of self-discrepancy, which occurs when we see our current self as not matching our ideal self.

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Increased Self Awareness

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refers to the positive (high self-esteem) or negative (low self-esteem) evaluations that we make of ourselves.

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Self Esteem

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involves an appropriate balance between the feeling and the cognitive parts of the self: we must always consider not only the positivity of our self-views but also the accuracy of our self-characterizations and the strength of our relationships with others.

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Effective Life

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reflects how others’ views of us feed into the way we see ourselves.

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Looking Glass Self

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occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about the appropriateness and validity of our opinions, and about our relative social status by comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of others.

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Social Comparison

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used to create a positive image of ourselves through favorable comparisons with others who are worse off than we are.

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Downward Social Comparison

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we compare ourselves with others who are better off than we are.

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Upward Social Comparison

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The tendency to attempt to present a positive image to others and thereby attempt to increase our social status.

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Self Presentation