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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context
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social psychology
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an emphasis on how both an individual's personality and environmental characteristics influence behavior
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interactionist perspective
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the study of how people perceive, remember, and interpret information about themselves and others
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social cognition
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the study of the relationship between neural and social processes
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social neuroscience
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a subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behavior
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behavioral genetics
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a subfield of psychology that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behavior
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evolutionary psychology
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a system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
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culture
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research designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures
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cross-cultural research
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research designed to examine racial and ethnic groups within cultures
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multicultural research
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a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur
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hypothesis
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an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena
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theory
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research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behavior, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory
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basic research
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research whose goals are to enlarge the understanding of naturally occurring events and to find solutions to practical problems
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applied research
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in an abstract, general form--love, violence, anxiety, etc.
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conceptual variables
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the specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable
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operational definition
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the extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate
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construct validity
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participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, actions
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self report
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respondents report their experiences at regular intervals (once a day)
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interval contingent self report
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report experience at signal of a beeper
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signal-contingent self report
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on a designated event, right after it occurs
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event-contingent self report
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collect lengthy responses on a general topic
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narrative studies
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instead of self-reports
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observations
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the degree to which different observers agree on their observations
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interrater reliability
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to describe people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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descriptive research
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often through the use of hidden cameras
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observational studies
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examining records of past events and behaviors, such as newspaper articles, medical records, sports statistics, hits on web pages
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archival studies
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can be conducted by phone, internet. can ask things not observable. need unbiased sample (population of interest)
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surveys
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a method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study
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random sampling
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research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher
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correlational research
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a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables
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correlation coefficient
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a form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because the experimenter has control over the events that occur and participants are randomly assigned to conditions
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experiment
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a method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions
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random assignment (not random sampling)
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in an experiment, a factor that experimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable
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independent variable
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in an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the independent variable
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dependent variable
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a variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the participants in a study
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subject variable
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a statistical term indicating the overall effect that an independent variable has on the dependent variable, ignoring all other independent variables
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main effect
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a statistical term indicating the change in the effect of each independent variable as a function of other independent variables
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interaction
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the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables
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internal validity
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the effects produced when an experimenter's expectations about the results of an experiment affect his or her behavior toward a participant and thereby influence the participant's responses
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experimenter expectancy effects
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the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations
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external validity
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the degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world
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mundane realism
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the degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously
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experimental realism
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in the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants
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deception
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accomplice of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, acts as if he/she is also participant
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confederate
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a set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects
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meta-analysis
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an individual's deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher's description of what will be required during such participation
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informed consent
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a disclosure, made to participants after research procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participants' involvement
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debriefing
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the sum total of an individual's beliefs about his or her own personal attributes
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self-concept
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a belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self-relevant information (feminine, independent, liberal, introverted, etc.)
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self-schema
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the process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events people overestimate how long the reaction will last
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affective forecasting
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the theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior (only when situation alone seems insufficient to have caused behavior)
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self-perception theory
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the hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion
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facial feedback hypothesis
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originates in factors within a person (success)
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intrinsic motivation
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originates outside a person (grades, money, avoid punishment)
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extrinsic motivation
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the tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors
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overjustification effect
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the theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others
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social comparison theory
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the theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal
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two-factor theory of emotion
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an affective component of the self, consisting of a person's positive and negative self-evaluations
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self-esteem
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the theory that humans cope with the fear of their own death by constructing worldviews that help to preserve their self-esteem
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terror management theory
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the theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behavior
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self-awareness theory
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a personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states
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private self-consciousness
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a personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others
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public self-consciousness
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the harder you try to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behavior, the less likely you are to succeed
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ironic processes
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a nonconscious form of self-enhancement
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implicit egotism
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behaviors designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure
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self handicapping
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to increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful (and cut off reflected failure CORF)
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bask in reflected glory BIRG
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the defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are
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downward social comparisons
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strategies people use to shape what others think of them
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self presentation
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our efforts to shape others' impressions in specific ways in order to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval
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strategic self-presentation
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acts that are motivated by the desire to get along w/others and be liked
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ingratiation
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acts motivated by a desire to get ahead and gain respect for one's competence
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self-promotion
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the desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves
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self-verification
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the tendency to change behavior in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation
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self-monitoring
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tendency for information related to the self to be more readily processed and remembered
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self reference effect
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pick out stimulus in complex situations
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cocktail party phenomenon
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people engaged in common activities but having minimal direct interaction
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collective
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a process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks
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social facilitation
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the preposition that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects
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mere presence theory
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a theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators
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evaluation apprehension theory
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a theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract from the task and create attentional conflict (tunnel vision response)
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distraction-conflict theory
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a group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled
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social loafing
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the theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant, and meaningful for achieving outcomes that they value (social compensation) (vs. sucker effect- no one wants to do all the work)
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collective effort model
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the loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior
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deindividuation
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affect individuals' cost-reward calculations (more likely if can't be caught)
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accountability cues
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focus a person's attention away from the self (can lead to deviant behavior) (mirror)
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attentional cues
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whether deindividuation affects people for better or worse seems to reflect the characteristics and norms of the group immediately surrounding the individual
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social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE)
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members orient themselves to the group
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forming (stage of group development)
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members try to influence the group so it fits their needs. Assertive about roles and direction might lead to hostility
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storming (stage of group development)
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try to reconcile conflicts and develop a common sense. Norms and roles --> commitment to group
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norming (stage of group development)
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try to perform tasks and maximize group performance. operate within roles and solve problems to achieve shared goals
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performing (stage of group development)
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members disengage from group, reducing activity if costs outweigh benefits
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adjourning (stage of group development)
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set of expected behaviors (formal or not)
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roles (in group)
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rules of conduct for members
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norms
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forces exerted on a group that push its members closer together
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cohesiveness
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the tendency for groups to become riskier than individuals
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the risky shift
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the exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members
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group polarization
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the greater the member and persuasiveness of the arguments to which group members are exposed, the more extreme their attitudes become
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persuasive arguments theory
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a group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence (cohesive, group structure, stressful situations)
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group think
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the reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation
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process loss
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a technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others' contributions
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brainstorming
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the condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made
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escalation effect
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a shared system for remembering information that enables multiple people to remember information together more efficiently than they could alone
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transactive memory
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a situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for everyone
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social dilemma
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one party must make either cooperate or competitive moves in relation to another party--competitive moves are beneficial to either side, but if both sides make competitive moves, they are worse off than if they had both cooperated
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prisoner's dilemma
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social dilemmas concerning how two or more people share a limited resource
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resource dilemma
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if people take as much limited resource as they want, nothing will be left
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commons dilemma
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all individuals are supposed to contribute resources to a common pool
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public goods dilemma
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a strategy for unilateral, persistent efforts to establish trust and cooperation between opposing parties
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graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction (GRIT)
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a negotiated resolution to a conflict in which all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to what they could have obtained from an equal division of the contested resources
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integrative agreement
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the ways in which people are affected by the real and imagined pressures of others
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social influence
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the tendency to change our perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms
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conformity
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influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgments
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informational influence
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influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant
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normative influence
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the change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others
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private conformity
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a superficial change in overt behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure
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public conformity
(when reality cannot easily be validated by physical evidence, people turn to others for information and conform because they are truly persuaded by that information. group size influences conformity to a point. social norms influence us when they are brought to awareness. it is more difficult for people to stand alone than to be part of even a tiny minority. one's familiarity w/ the issue at hand, not gender, is what affects conformity. in public, women conform more than men.) |
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the process by which dissenters produce change within a group
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minority influence
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interpersonal "credits" that a person earns by following group norms
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idiosyncrasy credits
(majorities elicit public conformity because of normative pressure. minorities elicit private conformity (long lasting) by teaching others to rethink positions) |
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a cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self reliance take priority over group allegiances
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individualism
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a cultural orientation in which interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over personal goals
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collectivism
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changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests
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compliance
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we treat others as they have treated us
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norm of reciprocity
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a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request
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foot-in-the-door technique
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a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs
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low-balling
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a two-step compliance technique in which the influences begins with an inflated request, then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus
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that's-not-all technique
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behavior change produced by the commands of authority
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obedience
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the theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons
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social impact theory
strength- status, ability, or relationship to a target immediacy- a source's proximity in time and space to the target |
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people engaged in common activities but having minimal direct interaction
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collective
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a process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks
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social facilitation
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the proposition that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects
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mere presence theory
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a theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators
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evaluation apprehension theory
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a theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract from the task and create attentional conflict (tunnel vision response)
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distraction-conflict theory
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a group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled
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social loafing
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the theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant, and meaningful for achieving outcomes that they value (social compensation) (vs. sucker effect- no one wants to do all the work)
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collective effort model
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the loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior
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deindividuation
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affect individual's cost-reward calculations (more likely if can't be caught)
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accountability cues
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focus a person's attention away from the self (can lead to deviant behavior) (mirror)
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attentional cues
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whether deindividuation affects people for better or worse seems to reflect the characteristics and norms of the group immediately surrounding the individual
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social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE)
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forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning
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stages of group development
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set of expected behaviors (formal or not)
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roles (in group)
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rules of conduct for members
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norms
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forces exerted on a group that push its member closer together
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cohesiveness
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the tendency for groups to become riskier than individuals
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the risky shift
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the exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members
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group polarization
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the greater the number and persuasiveness of the arguments to which group members are exposed, the more extreme their attitudes become
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persuasive arguments theory
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a group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence (cohesive, group structure, stressful situations)
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group think
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the reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation
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process loss
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a technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely w/o criticizing their own or others' contributions
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brainstorming
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the condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made
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escalation effect
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a shared system for remembering information that enables multiple people to remember information together more efficiently than they could alone
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transactive memory
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a situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for everyone
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social dilemma
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one party must make either cooperate or competitive moves in relation to another party--competitive moves are beneficial to either side, but if both sides make competitive moves, they are worse off that if they had both cooperated
|
prisoner's dilemma
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|
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social dilemmas concerning how two or more people share a limited resource (commons dilemma, public goods dilemma)
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resource dilemma
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if people take as much limited resource as they want, nothing will be left
|
commons dilemma
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all individuals are supposed to contribute resources to a common pool
|
public goods dilemma
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a strategy for unilateral, persistent efforts to establish trust and cooperation between opposing parties
|
graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction (GRIT)
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|
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a negotiated resolution to a conflict in which all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to what they would have obtained from an equal division of the contested resources
|
integrative agreement
|
|
|
the ways in which people are affected by the real and imagined pressures of others
|
social influence
|
|
|
the tendency to change our perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms
|
conformity
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influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgments
|
informational influence
|
|
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influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant
|
normative influence
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the change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others
|
private conformity
|
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a superficial change in overt behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure
- when reality cannot easily be validated by physical evidence, people turn to others for information and conform because they are truly persuaded by that info -group size influences conformity (to a point) -social norms influence us when they are brought to awareness -it is more difficult for people to stand alone that to be part of even a tiny minority -one's familiarity w/ the issue at hand, not gender, is what affects conformity -in public, women conform more than men |
public conformity
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the process by which dissenters produce change within a group
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minority influence
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interpersonal "credits" that a person earns by following group norms
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idiosyncrasy credits
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a cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self reliance take priority over group allegiances
|
individualism
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a cultural orientation in which interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over personal goals
|
collectivism
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changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests
|
compliance
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we treat others as they have treated us
|
norm of reciprocity
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a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request
|
foot-in-the-door technique
|
|
|
a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs
|
low-balling
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a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large that it is rejected
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door-in-the face technique
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a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer begins with an inflated request, then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus
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that's-not-all technique
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behavior change produced by the commands of authority
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obedience
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the theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons
(strength, immediacy) |
social impact theory
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status, ability, or relationship to a target
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strength
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a source's proximity in time and space to the target
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immediacy
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a positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea
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attitude
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a multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object
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attitude scales
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a phony lie detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions
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bogus pipeline
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an electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes
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facial electromyograph (EMG)
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an attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having
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implicit attitude
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a covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts--such as black or white with good or bad
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implicit association test (IAT)
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the theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions (and intention, but people don't always follow through)
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theory of planned behavior
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our beliefs about what others think we should do
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subjective norms
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the process by which attitudes are changed
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persuasion
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the process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments
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central route to persuasion
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the process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues
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peripheral route to persuasion
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the process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication
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elaboration
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competence or expertise and trustworthiness
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credibility
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a delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source
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sleeper effect
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we remember the message but forget the source
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discounting cue hypothesis
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a personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities
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need cognition (NC)
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the idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument
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inoculation hypothesis
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the theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive
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psychological reactance
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the theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce
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cognitive dissonance theory
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a condition in which people freely perform an attitude--discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward
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insufficient justification
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a condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened
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insufficient deterrence
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a general term for the process by which people come to understand one another
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social perception
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behavior that reveals a person's feelings w/o words--through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues
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nonverbal behavior
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stable characteristics such as personality traits, attitudes, and abilities
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dispositions
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explanations we come up with
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attributions
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a group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior
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attribution theory
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attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or effort
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personal attribution
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attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck
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situational attribution
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people try to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actor (choice, expectedness, effects)
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Jones' and Davis' correspondent inference theory
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freely chosen behavior says more about a person
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choice
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atypical behavior is more noticeable
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expectedness
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reveals something when there's only one positive effect, instead of say, three
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effects
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a principle of attribution theory holding that people attribute behavior to factors that are present when a behavior occurs and absent when it does not (consensus, distinctiveness, consistency)
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covariation principle (Kelley)
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moviegoers' opinion about a movie instead of just one person's
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consensus info
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what does one moviegoer think of other movies
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distinctiveness info
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does the moviegoer like the same film in a different setting
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consistency info
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the tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind
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availability heuristic
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the tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviors
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false-consensus effect
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the finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates (images are much more powerful)
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base-rate fallacy
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the tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not (unhappy w/ silver medal)
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counterfactual thinking
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the tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people's behavior
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fundamental attribution error
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the tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes and the behavior of others to personal factors
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actor-observer effect
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the belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims (more common in affluent countries)
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belief in a just world
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the process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression
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impression formation
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the theory that impressions are based on 1) perceiver dispositions and 2) a weighted average of a target person's traits
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information integration theory
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the tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information
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priming
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the tendency for negative info to weigh more heavily than positive info
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trait negativity bias
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a network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors
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implicit personality theory
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traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions
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central traits
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the tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later
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primacy effect
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the desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impressions
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need for closure
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once people have formed an impression, they start to interpret inconsistent information in light of that impression (based on first impression, the word "proud" either means self-respecting or conceited)
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change-of-meaning hypothesis
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the tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs
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confirmation biases
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the tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited
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belief perseverance
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the process by which one's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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