Social Psych 2

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two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions, membership in the same social category, or common fate

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group

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a belief that associates a group of people with certain traits

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stereotype

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negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups

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prejudice

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behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group

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discrimination

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the classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes (leads us to overestimate the differences between groups and underestimate the differences within groups)

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social categorization

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groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity

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ingroups

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groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of belonging, membership, and identity

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outgroups

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the tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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people who tend to see social groups as relatively fixed, static entities and the borders between groups as relatively clear and rigid (use stereotypes more)

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entity theorists

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people who tend to see social groups as relatively dynamic and changeable, with less consistency within groups and more malleability between groups

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incremental theorists

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an overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated (overestimations of distinctive behavior and expected associations)

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illusory correlation

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the tendency to perceive stimuli that differ from expectations as being even more different than they really are (Hillary Clinton as compared to businessmen)

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contrast effect

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a method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them

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subliminal presentations

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a shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups

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superordinate goal

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the theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources

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realistic conflict theory

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feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others

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relative deprivation

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the tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups

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ingroup favoritism

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the theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem

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social identity theory

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a desire to see one's ingroup as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups

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social dominance orientation

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processes that endorse and legitimize existing social arrangements (protect the status quo)

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system justification

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prejudice and discrimination based on a person's gender

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sexism

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the theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women

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social role theory

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a form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings (both hostile sexism and benevolent sexism)

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ambivalent sexism

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what many people in a culture believe (gender) differences should be

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prescriptive

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prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background

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racism

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a form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize

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modern racism

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thoughts about the outgroup's stereotypes about them

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metastereotypes

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in situations in which a negative stereotype can apply to certain groups, members of these groups can fear being seen through low expectations (social identity threats)

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stereotype threat

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dismiss a domain as no longer relevant to self-esteem and identity (women with math, for example)

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disidentify

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members of non-stereotyped groups perform better on tasks when the stereotype threat against the outgroup is relevant

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stereotype lift

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the theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions

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contact hypothesis

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(under contact hypothesis) contact should occur in circumstances that give two groups equal status

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equal status

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(under contact hypothesis) contact should involve one-on-one interactions among individual members of the two groups

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personal interaction

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(under contact hypothesis) members of two groups should join together in an effort to achieve superordinate goals

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cooperative activities

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(under contact hypothesis) the social norms, defined in part by relevant authorities, should favor intergroup contact

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social norms

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a cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts

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jigsaw classroom

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leads people not only to pay less attention to categories and intergroup boundaries, but also to perceive outgroup members as individuals

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decategorization

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leads people to change their conception of groups, allowing them to develop a more inclusive sense of the diversity characterizing their own ingroup

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recategorization

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the desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships

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need for affiliation

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a feeling of deprivation about existing social relations

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loneliness

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physical nearness leads to social interaction

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the proximity effect

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the phenomenon whereby the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they evaluate that stimulus

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mere exposure effect

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the belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desirable personality characteristics

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what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype

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the proposition that people are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness

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matching hypothesis

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a mutual exchange between what we give and receive (for example, liking those who like us)

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reciprocity

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the tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available

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hard-to-get effect

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a close relationship between two adults involving emotional attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs, or interdependence

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intimate relationship

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a perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others

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social exchange theory

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average expected outcome in relationships

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comparison level

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people's expectations about what they would receive in an alternative situation

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comparison level for alternatives

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something a person puts into a relationship that he or she cannot recover if the relationship ends

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investment

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the theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners

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equity theory

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a relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions

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exchange relationship

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a relationship in which the participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs

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communal relationship

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the way a person typically interacts with significant others

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attachment styles

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a theory proposing that love has three basic components--intimacy, passion, and commitment--which can be combined to produce eight subtypes

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triangular theory of love

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romantic love characterized by high arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection

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passionate love

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a secure, trusting, stable partnership

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companionate love

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the process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus

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excitation transfer

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revelations about the self that a person makes to others

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self disclosure

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relationships progress from superficial exchanges to more intimate ones

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social penetration theory

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a person's preference for members of the same sex (homosexuality), opposite sex (heterosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality)

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sexual orientation

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actions intended to benefit others

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prosocial behavior

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preferential helping of genetic relatives, which results in the greater likelihood that genes held in common will survive (cooperative breeding)

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kin selection

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helping someone else increases the likelihood that you will be helped in return

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reciprocal altruism

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"I help you and someone else helps me."

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indirect reciprocity

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groups with altruistic members may be less likely to become extinct than groups with only selfish individuals

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group selection

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the proposition that people react to emergency situations by acting in the most cost-effective way to reduce the arousal of shock and alarm

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arousal: cost award model

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people try to convince themselves and others that they are motivated to benefit themselves by appearing to be moral

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moral hypocrisy

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to appear to help another only to hurt him or her

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overhelping

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thoughtful helping in the face of potentially enormous costs (hiding people during Holocaust)

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courageous resistance

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motivated by the desire to improve another's welfare

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altruistic

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motivated by the desire to increase one's own welfare

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egoistic

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using the power of imagination to try to see the world through someone else's eyes

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perspective taking

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other-oriented feelings such as sympathy, compassion, and tenderness

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empathetic concern

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self-oriented reactions to a person in need--feeling alarmed, troubled, or upset

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personal distress

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the proposition that empathetic concern for a person in need produces an altruistic motive for helping

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empathy-altruism hypothesis

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the proposition that people help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness

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negative state relief model

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the effect whereby the presence of others inhibits helping

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bystander effect

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tuning out things when you're used to similar things

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stimulus overload

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the state in which people mistakenly believe that their own thoughts and feelings are different from those of others, even when everyone's behavior is the same

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pluralistic ignorance

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the belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need

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diffusion of responsibility

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reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers

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audience inhibition

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the effect whereby a good mood increases helping behavior

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good mood effect

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a general rule of conduct reflecting standards of social approval and disapproval

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social norm

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when people are in a situation in which they feel overbenefited (receiving more benefits than earned), they should help those who are underbenefited (receiving fewer benefits than earned)

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norm of equity

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a moral standard emphasizing that people should help those who need assistance

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norm of social responsibility

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empathy and advanced moral reasoning

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altruistic personality characteristics

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close friend or romantic partner. feel mutual responsibility for each other's needs

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communal relationship

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give help with the expectation of receiving comparable benefits in return

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exchange relationship

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two responses to superior performance by a significant other: if the achievement occurs in an area not relevant to our own ego we can indulge in BIRG-ing. If the area is relevant to our own ego, we may experience envy and resentment

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self-evaluation maintenance model

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the theory that reactions to receiving assistance depend on whether help is perceived as supportive or threatening

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threat-to-self-esteem model

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behavior intended to harm another individual

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aggression

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inflicting harm in order to obtain something of value

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instrumental aggression

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inflicting harm for its own sake

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emotional aggression

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extreme acts of aggression

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violence

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strong feelings of displeasure in response to a perceived injury

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anger

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negative, antagonistic attitude toward another person or group

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hostility

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when aggression produces desired outcomes

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positive reinforcement

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when aggression prevents or stops undesirable outcomes

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negative reinforcement

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physical force intended to cause a child pain but not injury, for the purpose of controlling or correcting the child's behavior

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corporal punishment

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the theory that behavior is learned through the observation of others as well as through the direct experience of rewards and punishments

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social learning theory

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the idea that 1) frustration always elicits the motive to aggress and 2) all aggression is caused by frustration

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frustration-aggression

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aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access

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displacement

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a reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual act of aggression

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catharsis

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blaming a particular minority group or groups for the problems the overall society is facing

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scapegoating

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arousal created by one stimulus can intensify an individual's emotional response to another stimulus

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excitation transfer

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the proposition that aggression is influenced by both the intensity of arousal and the type of emotion produced by a stimulus

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arousal affect model

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the view that unpleasant experiences create negative affect, which in turn stimulates associations connected with anger and fear. Emotional and behavioral outcomes then depend at least in part, on higher-order cognitive processing

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cognitive neoassociation analysis

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the tendency of weapons to increase the likelihood of aggression by their mere presence

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weapons effect

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the tendency to perceive hostile intent in others

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hostile attribution bias

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information about a person's situation indicating that he or she should not be held fully responsible for aggressive actions

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mitigating information

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narrowing focus of attention due to alcohol consumption

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alcohol myopia

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reduction in emotion-related physiological reactivity in response to a stimulus

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desensitization

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the process by which the mass media (particularly television) construct a version of social reality for the public

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cultivation

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explicit sexual material

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pornography

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the transmission of domestic violence across generations

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cycle of violence

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addresses individuals' problems at several different levels and contexts

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multisystemic therapy

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the study of physical health and illness by psychologists from various areas of specialization

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health psychology

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an unpleasant state of arousal in which people perceive the demands of an event as taxing or exceeding their ability to satisfy or alter those demands

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stress

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the process by which people make judgments about the demands of potentially stressful events and their ability to meet those demands

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appraisal

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efforts to reduce stress

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coping

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anything that causes stress (catastrophes, major life events, daily hassles)

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stressors

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a condition in which a person experiences enduring physical and psychological symptoms after an extremely stressful event

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posttraumatic stress disorder

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SRRS

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social readjustment rating scale (death of a spouse = #1)

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a prolonged response to job stress that is characterized by emotional exhaustion, cynicism, disengagement, and a lack of personal accomplishment

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burnout

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a three-stage process (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion) by which the body responds to stress (sympathetic nervous system)

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general adaptation syndrome

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a pattern of behavior characterized by extremes of competitive striving for achievement, a sense of time urgency, hostility, and aggression

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type A behavior pattern

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a biological surveillance system that detects and destroys "non self" substances that invade the body

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immune system

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a subfield of psychology that examines the links among psychological factors, the brain and nervous system, and the immune system

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psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

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a phenomenon in which experience with an uncontrollable event creates passive behavior toward a subsequent threat to wellbeing

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learned helplessness

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a habitual tendency to attribute negative events to causes that are stable, global, and internal

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depressive explanatory style

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personality style with 1) commitment, a sense of purpose with regard to work, family. 2) challenge, an openness to new experiences and desire to embrace change. 3) control, the belief that one has the power to influence important future outcomes (buffers stress)

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hardiness

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a person's belief that he or she is capable of the specific behavior required to produce a desired outcome in a given situation

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self-efficacy

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cognitive and behavioral efforts to alter a stressful situation

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problem-focused coping

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cognitive and behavioral efforts to reduce reduce the distress produced by a stressful situation

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emotion-focused coping

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up-front efforts to ward off or modify the onset of a stressful event

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proactive coping

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the helpful coping resources provided by friends and other people
-number of social contacts
-intimacy model
-perceived availability

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social support

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having a close relationship with a significant other who is emotionally on call for late night conversations

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intimacy model

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believing ample support is available helps people cope more effectively

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perceived availability

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one's happiness or life satisfaction, as measured by self report

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subjective well-being

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predictors of happiness

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social relationships, employment status, physical and mental health

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satisfaction with the present demands on the level of success to which we are accustomed

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adaptation-level theory