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126 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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social influence
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effect that words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior
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social psychology
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scientific study of way in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
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construal
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the way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world
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individual differences
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aspects of people's personalities that make them different from other people
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fundamental attribution error
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tendency to overestimate the extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors
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behaviorism
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school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment--that is, how positive and negative events in the environment are associated with specific behaviors
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gestalt psychology
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school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object
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self-esteem
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people's evaluations of their own self-worth--that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
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social cognition
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how people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
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hindsight bias
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tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predicted an outcome after knowing that it occurred
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observational method
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technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior
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ethnography
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method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have
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interjudge reliability
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level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual
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archival analysis
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form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (novels, diaries, newspapers, etc)
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correlational method
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technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed
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correlation coefficient
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statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another--for example, how well you can predict people's weight from their height
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surveys
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research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behavior
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random selection
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way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample
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experimental method
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method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people's responses)
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independent variable
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variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable
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dependent variable
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variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable
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random assignment to condition
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process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants' personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions
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probability level (p-value)
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number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant (trustworthy) if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and not the independent variables studied
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internal validity
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making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions
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external validity
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extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
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psychological realism
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extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life
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cover story
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description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose, used to maintain psychological realism
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field experiments
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experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory
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meta-analysis
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statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable
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basic research
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studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity
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applied research
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studies designed to solve a particular social problem
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cross cultural research
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research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raisedq
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natural selection
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process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particular environment are passed along to future generations, because organisms with that trait are more likely to produce offspring
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evolutionary psychology
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attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection
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informed consent
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agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance
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deception
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misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire
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institutional review board
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group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that reviews all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by the IRB before it is conducted
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debriefing
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explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired
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social cognition
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how people think about themselves and the social world, or more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
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automatic thinking
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thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless
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schemas
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mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember
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accessibility
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the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people's minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world
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printing
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processes by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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the case whereby people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people's original expectations, making the expectations come true
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judgmental heuristics
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mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently
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availability heuristic
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a mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind
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representativeness heuristic
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mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
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base rate information
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information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population
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analytical thinking style
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type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in western cultures
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holistic thinking style
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type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures
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controlled thinking
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thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful
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counterfactual thinking
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mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been
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thought suppression
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attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget
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overconfidence barrier
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the fact that people usually have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgments
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social perception
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study of how we form impressions of and make inference about other people
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nonverbal communication
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way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze
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encode
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to express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back
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decode
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interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness
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affect blend
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facial expression in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion
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display rules
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culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display
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emblems
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nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations, such as the "OK' sign
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implicit personality theory
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type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that someone who is kind is generous as well
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attribution theory
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description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior
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internal attribution
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inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality
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external attribution
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inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation
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covariation model
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theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs
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consensus information
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information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does
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distinctiveness information
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information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
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consistency information
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information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances
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correspondence bias
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the tendency to infer that people's behavior corresponds to (matches) their disposition (personality)
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perceptual salience
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the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention
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two-step process of attribution
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analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution
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actor/observer difference
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the tendency to see other people's behavior as dispositionally caused but focusing more on the role of situational factors when explaining one's own behavior
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self-serving attributions
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explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors
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defensive attributions
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explanations for behavior that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality
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belief in a just world
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a form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people
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primacy effect
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what you think first, always think
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Zombardo study
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prisoners and guards, verbal abuse and humiliation, good people do bad things?
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cognitive dissonance theory
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we like when things in our lives works together--all attitudes and behaviors the same. parsimonious-few assumptions, powerful-explains phenomena, generative-suggests testable hypothesis
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theories
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offer general explanation, focus on how and why, may or may not be testable
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hypotheses
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predict outcome of particular study, focus on outcome (what should happen), falsifiable
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measurement methods
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surveys, self-report, behavioral, observation, physiological measures, neuroscience measures
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correlational designs
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assess behavior in everyday life, assess behavior that can't be manipulated, first step (show relationship exists)...can't make causal claims NO MANIPULATION
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reverse causality problem
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x causes y does not mean y causes x
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third variable problem
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z causes both x and y
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experimental designs
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independent variable--manipulated by experimenter, hypothesized "cause"
dependent variable--measured by experimenter to determine outcome of interest, hypothesized "effect" |
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conceptual variable
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theoretical variable of interest
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operational variable
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translates conceptual variables into a form you can measure
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random selection
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problem: mostly western, college samples
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random assignment
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equal chance of being in any condition, balances out preexisting differences between groups
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experimental control
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manipulate only variable of interest, all else held constant
control group--exactly the same except they do not get the experimental treatment |
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longitudinal designs
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same people over time, before and after, change and stability over time, short vs long term effects, combined with experimental conditions, problem--cohort effects
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stress
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men happier, over time stress has gone up
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psychological stress
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negative feelings and beliefs that arise when people feel unable to cope with demands of environment--both good and bad things
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acute vs chronic
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hard exam vs being poor
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stress response cycle
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phase one: alarm reaction (mobilize resources)
phase two: resistance (cope with stressor) phase three: exhaustion (reserves depleted) |
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short term effects of stress
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generally adaptive: sugar released in blood, increased heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, immune system, digestion/growth
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long term effects of stress
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decreased immune function, hypertension, ulcers, diabetes
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Cohen, Tyrrell and Smith
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cold virus in hotel, more likely to get virus if stressed? problems: stress as independent variable, manipulated? no, didn't assign random stress
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perceived control
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belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes---confidence, past experience, expectations, socioeconomic status
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Rodin and Langer, Schulz and Hanusa
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nursing home: plant, speech, movie--those with "perceived control" lived longer
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adaptation principle
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people adapt to what they have, money does not = happiness
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subjective well-being
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emotional well-being, satisfaction with life
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measure happiness?
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observations (smile, laugh), brain activity (dopamine), self report, peer reports,
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impact bias
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tendency to overestimate the hedonic impact of future events--won't make me happy for as long as i think
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schemas
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influence is only effective when about something you already believe
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social cognition
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how we select, interpret, and remember info about others and ourselves--how this influences our judgments and behaviors, construals
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schema definition
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organized set of knowledge about a stimuli, knowledge includes attributes of stimulus, relations among attributes, and specific examples, mental structure that helps us organize info on a stimulus
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types of schemas
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stereotypes (types of people or groups of people), personality traits, situations (scripts, cultural), ourselves, objects
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characteristics of schemas
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have one for almost everything (even things haven't experienced--media), functional--help with organization, fast, unconscious categorizing
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effects of schemas
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influence attention and memory
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schema relevant>schema irrelevant
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microwave at party--doesn't have to do with schema of party
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schema consistent>schema inconsistent
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video of woman doing household chores, one group told librarian, other waitress (Cohen)
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accessibility of schemas
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?
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chronic vs temporary
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chronic-something used a lot, (pessimist vs optimist)
temporary-something just happened |
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self-fulfilling prophecy example
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bloomers--teacher gave extra help/attention/work to those told to be bloomers--then did better
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ambiguity effect
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?
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attribution
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inferring the causes of our behavior and the behavior of others, functions to predict and control environment, determine responses to events, influence expectations in future
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when make attributions?
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to explain events that:
are unexpected are negative have uncertain causes |
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Heider
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father of attribution theory, people as "naive scientists", two kinds of att--internal and external, not only humans
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fundamental attribution error
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tendency to make internal attributions for people's behavior even when there is evidence for external causes (correspondence bias)
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Castro study
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P's read essays supposedly written by another student, 4 conditions: pro or anti Castro, choice or assigned essay, asked P's to estimate author's true attitude toward Castro
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explanation for FAE
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attribution is two-step process
1) automatic internal attribution 2)adjustments for external factors |
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subjects asked to explain behaviors while doing something else
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always internal more than external
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Gang Lu and Thomas McIlvane
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coded for # of internal and external attributions, American newspapers always more internal, Chinese less internal
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Fish attribution
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why moving away from group, Chinese used internal less, external more
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