Sensation And Perception And Consciousness

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Sensation

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the process by which oursensory receptors and nervous systemreceive and represent stimulus energiesfrom our environment.

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Perception

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the process of organizingand interpreting sensory information, enablingus to recognize meaningful objectsand events.

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Bottom-Up Processing

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analysis thatbegins with the sensory receptors andworks up to the brain’s integration ofsensory information

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Top-Down Processing

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informationprocessing guided by higher-level mentalprocesses, as when we construct perceptionsdrawing on our experience andexpectations.

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Absolute Threshold

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the minimumstimulus energy needed to detect a particularstimulus 50 percent of the time.

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Signal Detection Theory

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a theorypredicting how and when we detect thepresence of a faint stimulus (signal) amidbackground stimulation (noise). Assumesthere is no single absolute thresholdand that detection depends partly on aperson’s experience, expectations, motivation,and alertness.

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Difference Threshold

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the minimumdifference between two stimuli requiredfor detection 50 percent of the time. Weexperience the difference threshold as ajust noticeable difference (or jnd)

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Weber's Law

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the principle that, to beperceived as different, two stimuli mustdiffer by a constant minimum percentage(rather than a constant amount).

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Sensory Adaptation

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diminishedsensitivity as a consequence of constantstimulation

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Perceptual Set

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a mental predispositionto perceive one thing and not another

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Pupil

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the adjustable opening in the centerof the eye through which light enters

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Iris

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a ring of muscle tissue that formsthe colored portion of the eye around thepupil and controls the size of the pupilopening

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Lens

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the transparent structure behindthe pupil that changes shape to helpfocus images on the retina.

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Retina

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the light-sensitive inner surfaceof the eye, containing the receptor rodsand cones plus layers of neurons that beginthe processing of visual information.

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Accomodation

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the process by whichthe eye’s lens changes shape to focusnear or far objects on the retina.

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Rods

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retinal receptors that detect black,white, and gray; necessary for peripheraland twilight vision, when cones don’trespond.

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Cones

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retinal receptor cells that areconcentrated near the center of the retinaand that function in daylight or in well-litconditions. The cones detect fine detailand give rise to color sensations.

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Optic Nerve

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the nerve that carries neuralimpulses from the eye to the brain.

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Blind Spot

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the point at which the opticnerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind”spot because no receptor cells arelocated there.

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Fovea

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the central focal point in the retina,around which the eye’s cones cluster.

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Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

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the theory thatthe retina contains three different colorreceptors—one most sensitive to red,one to green, one to blue—which, whenstimulated in combination, can producethe perception of any color

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Opponent Process Theory

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the theorythat opposing retinal processes (redgreen,yellow-blue, white-black) enablecolor vision. For example, some cells arestimulated by green and inhibited by red;others are stimulated by red and inhibitedby green.

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Feature Detectors

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nerve cells in thebrain that respond to specific featuresof the stimulus, such as shape, angle, ormovement

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Parallel Processing

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the processingof many aspects of a problem simultaneously;the brain’s natural mode ofinformation processing for many functions,including vision.

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Gestalt

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an organized whole. Gestaltpsychologists emphasized our tendencyto integrate pieces of information intomeaningful wholes.

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Figure-ground

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the organization of thevisual field into objects (the figures) thatstand out from their surroundings (theground).

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Grouping

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the perceptual tendency toorganize stimuli into coherent groups; proximity, similarity, connectedness, continuity, closure

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Depth Perception

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the ability to seeobjects in three dimensions although theimages that strike the retina are twodimensional;allows us to judge distance.

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Binocular Cues

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depth cues, such asretinal disparity, that depend on the useof two eyes.

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Retinal Disparity

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a binocular cue forperceiving depth: By comparing imagesfrom the retinas in the two eyes, thebrain computes distance—the greater thedisparity (difference) between the twoimages, the closer the object.

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Convergance

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the closer an object, the more inward our eyes need to turn in order to focus

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Monocular Cues

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depth cues, suchas interposition and linear perspective,available to either eye alone.

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Phi Penomenon

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an illusion ofmovement created when two or moreadjacent lights blink on and off in quicksuccession.

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Perceptual Constancy

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perceivingobjects as unchanging (having consistentcolor, brightness, shape, and size) evenas illumination and retinal images change

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Visual Agnosia

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a condition in which a person can see but cannot recognize or interpret visual information, due to a disorder in the parietal lobes.

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Perceptual Adaptation

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in vision, theability to adjust to an artificially displacedor even inverted visual field.

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Audition

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the sense or act of hearing.

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Middle Ear

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the chamber between theeardrum and cochlea containing threetiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup)that concentrate the vibrations of theeardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

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Cochlea

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a coiled, bony,fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; soundwaves traveling through the cochlearfluid trigger nerve impulses.

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Inner Ear

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the innermost part of theear, containing the cochlea, semicircularcanals, and vestibular sacs

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Sensorineural Hearing Loss

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the mostcommon form of hearing loss, also callednerve deafness; caused by damage to thecochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditorynerves.conduction hearing loss less

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Conduction Hearing Loss

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less commonform of hearing loss caused bydamage to the mechanical system thatconducts sound waves to the cochlea.

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Auditory Nerve

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a bundle of nerve fibers that carries hearing information between the cochlea the brain.

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Ossicles

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three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

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Cochlear Implant

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a device for convertingsounds into electrical signals andstimulating the auditory nerve throughelectrodes threaded into the cochlea.

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Place Theory

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in hearing, the theorythat links the pitch we hear with theplace where the cochlea’s membrane isstimulated.

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Frequency Theory

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in hearing, thetheory that the rate of nerve impulsestraveling up the auditory nerve matchesthe frequency of a tone, thus enabling usto sense its pitch. (Also called temporaltheory.)

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Gate-Control Theory

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the theory thatthe spinal cord contains a neurological“gate” that blocks pain signals or allowsthem to pass on to the brain. The “gate”is opened by the activity of pain signalstraveling up small nerve fibers and isclosed by activity in larger fibers or byinformation coming from the brain

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Gustation

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the physical act or the sense of tasting

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Olfaction

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the sense of smell

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Olfactory Bulb

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a neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction

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Anosmia

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the medical term for loss of the sense of smell

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Selective Attention

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the focusing ofconscious awareness on a particularstimulus.

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Inattenional Blindness

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failing tosee visible objects when our attention isdirected elsewhere

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Psychoactive Drugs

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a chemical substancethat alters perceptions and moods.

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Depressants

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drugs (such as alcohol,barbiturates, and opiates) that reduceneural activity and slow body functions

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Stimulants

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drugs (such as caffeine,nicotine, and the more powerfulamphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, andmethamphetamine) that excite neuralactivity and speed up body functions.

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Hallucinogen

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psychedelic (“mind -manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, thatdistort perceptions and evoke sensoryimages in the absence of sensory input

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Tolerance

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a condition in which repeated use of a drug leads to reductions in its psychological effects, thereby requiring progressively larger doses in order for similar effects to occur.

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WIthdrawal

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the onset of symptoms, both physical and mental, when a substance is reduced or not given to the body.

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Physical Dependence

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a physical condition caused by chronic use of a tolerance forming drug, in which abrupt or gradual drug withdrawal causes unpleasantphysical symptoms.

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Psychological Dependence

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a form of dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., a state of unease or dissatisfaction, a reduced capacity to experience pleasure, or anxiety) upon cessation of drug use or engagement in certain behaviors

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Hypnosis

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a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist)suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions,feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

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Posthypnotic Amnesia

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a person's inability to recall events or information obtained while in a hypnotic state. This can occur naturally or through hypnotic suggestion.

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Posthypnotic Suggestion

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a suggestion, made during ahypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longerhypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesiredsymptoms and behaviors

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Dissociation

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a split in consciousness, which allows somethoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

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Circadian Rhythm

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Often referred to as the "body clock", the circadian rhythm is a cycle that tells our bodies when to sleep, rise, eat--regulating many physiological processes; approx. 24 hours

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REM Sleep

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rapid eye movement sleep; arecurring sleep stage during which vividdreams commonly occur. Also known asparadoxical sleep, because the musclesare relaxed (except for minor twitches)but other body systems are active.

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REM Rebound

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the tendency for REMsleep to increase following REM sleepdeprivation (created by repeated awakeningsduring REM sleep).

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Insomnia

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recurring problems in fallingor staying asleep.

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Narcolepsy

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a sleep disorder characterizedby uncontrollable sleep attacks. Thesufferer may lapse directly into REMsleep, often at inopportune times.

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Sleep Apnea

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a sleep disorder characterizedby temporary cessations ofbreathing during sleep and repeatedmomentary awakenings.

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Night Terrors

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a sleep disorder characterizedby high arousal and an appearanceof being terrified; unlike nightmares, nightterrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, withintwo or three hours of falling asleep, andare seldom remembered.

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Wish Fulfillment

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the satisfying of unconscious desires in dreams or fantasies.

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Manifest Content

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according to Freud,the remembered story line of a dream(as distinct from its latent, or hidden,content).

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Latent Content

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t according to Freud,the underlying meaning of a dream (asdistinct from its manifest content).

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Activation Synthesis Theory

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the theory that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random of random neural signals that fire during sleep

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Memory Consolidation Theory

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a neurological process that involves gradually converting information from short-termmemory into long-term memory