Revolutions Of 1848 / Industrialization/ Age Of Nationalism / Russia

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Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

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British theorist and philosopher who proposed utilitarianism, the principle that governments should operate on the basis of utility, or the greatest good for the greatest number.

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Edmund Burke (1729-1797)

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Member of British Parliament and author of Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), which criticized the underlying principles of the French Revolution and argued conservative thought.

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Burschenschaften

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Politically active students around 1815 in the German states proposing unification and democratic principles.

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Carbonari

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Italian secret societies calling for a unified Italy and republicanism after 1815.

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Carlsbad Decrees (1819)

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Repressive laws in the German states limiting freedom of speech and dissemination of liberal ideas in the universities.

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Decembrist

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Russian revolutionaries calling for constitutional reform in the early nineteenth century.

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Frederick William IV (1840-1861)

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King of Prussia who promised and later reneged on his promises for constitutional reforms in 1848.

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Francois Guizot (1787-1874)

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Chief minister under Louis Philippe. Guizot's repression led to the revolution of 1848.

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Holy Alliance

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An alliance envisioned by Alexander I of Russia by which those in power were asked to rule in accord with Christian principles.

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Louie Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1873)

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Nephew of Napoleon I; he came to power as president of the Second French Republic in 1848.

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Prince Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859)

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Austrian member of the nobility and chief architect of conservative policy at the Congress of Vienna.

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John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

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British philosopher who published On Liberty (1859), advocating individual rights against government intrusion, and The Subjection of Women (1869), on the cause of women's rights.

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Poor Law of 1834

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Legislation that restricted the number of poverty-stricken eligible for aid

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Quadruple Alliance

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Organization, made up of Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia, to preserve the peace settlement of 1815; France joined in 1818

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Rotten boroughs

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Gave vote to all men who paid ten pounds in rent a year; eliminated the rotten boroughs

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Slavery

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Abolished in the British Empire, 1833

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Factory Act

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Limited children's and adolescents workweek in textile factories

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Corn Laws

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They had imposed a tariff on imported grain and were a symbolic protection of aristicratic landholdings

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Michael Bakunin (1814-1876)

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Radical Russian, advocated revolutionary violence. He believed that revolutionary movements should be lead by secret societies who would seize power, destroy the state and create a new social order

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Henry Bessemer-- (1813-1898)

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Englishman who developed the Bessemer converter, the first efficient method forthe mass production of steel

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Louis Blanc--(1811-1882)

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Wrote the Organization of Work (1840) which proposed the use of competition to eliminate competition. It wasthe first step toward a future socialist society. Advocated the principle of "from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs."

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Classical liberalism

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Middle class (bourgeois) doctrine indebted to the writings of the philosophes, the French Revolution, and the popularization of the Scientific Revolution. Its politi8cal goals were self government (concept ofthe general will); a written constitution; natural rights (speech, religion, press, property, mobility); limited suffrage; its economic goals were laissez-faire (free trade -- no government interference inthe workings of the economy).

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Dialectical materialism

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The idea, according to Karl Marx, that change and development in history results from the conflict between social classes. Economic forces impel human beings to behave in socially determined ways

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Domestic system

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The manufacture of goods in the household setting, a productdon system that gave way to the factory system

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Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

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Collaborator with Karl Marx. Engels was a textile factory owner and supplied Marx with the hard data for his economic writings, most notably Das Kapttal (l867)

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J. G. Fichte (1762-1814)

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German writer who believed that the German spirit was nobler and purer than that of other peoples

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Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

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A leading utopian socialist who envisaged small communal societies in which men and women cooperated in agriculture and industry, abolishing private property and monogamous marriage as well.

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Hegelian dialectic

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The idea, according to G. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831), a German philosopher, that social change results from the conflict of opposite ideas. The thesis is confronted by the antithesis, resuiting in a synthesis, which then becomes a new thesis. The process is evolutionary. Marx turned Hegel "upside down" and made class conflict, not ideas, the force driving history forward.

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J. G. Herder (1774-1803)

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Forerunner of the German Romantic movement who believed that each people shared a national character, or Volksgeist

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Thomas Malthus (1776-1834)

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English parson whose Essay on Population (1798) argued that population would always increase faster than the food supply.

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Karl Marx (1818-1883)

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German philosopher and founder of Marxism, the theory that class conflict is the motor force driving historical change and development

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Robert Owen (1771-1858)

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Utopian socialists who improved health and safety conditions in mills, increased workers wages and reduced hours. Dreamed of establishing socialist communities the most noteable was New Harmony (1826) which failed

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David Ricardo (1772-1823)

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English economist who formulated the "iron law of wages," according to which wages would always remain at the subsistence level for the workers because of population growth

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Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

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English philosopher who argued that in the difflcuit economic struggle for existence, only the "fittest" would survive

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Flora Tristan (1803-1844)

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Soclalist and feminist who called for working women's social and political rights

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Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

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Prussian chancellor who engineered a series of wars to unify Germany under his authoritarian rule

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Bundesrat

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The upper house, or Federal Council, of the German Diet (legislature).

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Count Cavour (1810-1861)

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Italian statesman from Sardinia who used diplomacy to help achieve unification of Italy

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Francis Deak--(1803-1876)

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Magyar, who forced Franz Joseph to agree to the Compromise of 1867 (Ausgleich) which created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary

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Ems Telegram

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The carefully edited dispatch by Bismarck to the French ambassador Benedetti that appeared to be insulting and thus requiring retaliation by France for the seeming affront to French honor

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Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

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Soldier of fortune who amassed his "Red Shirt" army to bring Naples and Sicily into a unified Italy

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House of Savoy

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The Italian dynasty ruling the independent state of Piedmont- Sardinia. Its head was King Victor Emmanuel II.

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Indemnity Bill (1867)

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The bill passed by the German Reichstag that legitimated Bismarck's unconstitutional collection of taxes to modernize the army in 1863

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Kulturkampf

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Bismarck's anticlerical campaign to expel Jesuits from Germany and break off relations with Vatican. Eventually, after little success, Bismarck halted these policies

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Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864)

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Leader of the revisionist socialists, who hoped to achieve socialism through the ballot rather than the bullet. They agreed to work within the framework of the existing government.

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Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)

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Idealistic patriot devoted to the principle of united and republican Italy in a world of free states

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Napoleon III (1852-1870)

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The former Louis Napoleon, who became president of the Second Republic of France in 1848 and engineered a coup d'état, ultimately making himself head of the Second Empire.

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Nationalism

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The shared belief among peoples of a common heritage, culture, and customs, and speaking a similar language (there may be dialect differences).

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Daniel O'Connell--(1775-1847)

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Irish advocate for the of the Penal Laws against Catholics. Tried to have repealed the Act of Union of 1800, which linked Britain and Ireland legislatively. His election to Parliament for the passage of the1829 Catholic Emancipation Act which declared Catholics were eligible for Public Office

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Charles Stewart Parnell--(1846-1891)

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elected to Parliament in 1875 he came to prominence by obstructing other legislation to gain a hearing for home rule for Ireland. In 1885 Parnell's party won 86 seats, exactly the number of votes separating the Liberals (335) from the Conservatives (249). This forced Gladstone to announced his support for a HOME RULE BILL

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Realpolitik

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The "politics of reality," i.e., the use of practical means to achieve ends. Bismarck was a practitioner

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"Red Shirt"

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Volunteers in Garibaldi's army

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Reichstag

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The lower house of the German Diet, or legislature

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Risorgimento

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Italian drive and desire for unity

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Siege of Paris

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The four-month Prussian assault on the French capital after Napoleon III's surrender in 1870

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Schleswig-Holstein

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Two duchies located south of Denmark. In 1863 Schleswig was annexed by Denmark prompting Bismarck's Danish War

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Treaty of Frankfurt

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The end of the Franco-Prussian War, which ceded the territories of Alsace and most of Lorraine to Germany

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Young Italy

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An association under the leadership of Mazzini that urged the unification of the country

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Alexander II (1855-1881)

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Reforming czar who emancipated the serfs and introduced some measure of representative local government

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Alexander III (1881-1894)

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Politically reactionary czar who promoted economic modernization of Russia

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Boyar

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Russian noble

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erine the Great (1762-1796)

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An "enlightened despot" of Russia whose policies of reform were aborted under pressure of rebellion by serfs

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Church Statute of 1721

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A Holy Synod that replaced the office of patriarch. All of its members (lay and religious) had to swear allegiance to the czar

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Crimean War (1853-1856)

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Conflict ostensibly waged to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, in actuality to gain a foothold in the Black Sea. Turks, Britain, and France forced Russia to sue for peace. The Treaty of Paris (1856) forfeited Russia's right to maintain a war fleet in the Black Sea. Russia also lost the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia.

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Decembrist Revolt

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The 1825 plot by liberals (upper-class intelligentsia) to set up a constitutional monarchy or a republic. The plot failed, but the ideals remained

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Duma

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Russian national legislature

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Emancipation Edict (1861)

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The imperial law that abolished serfdom in Russia and, on paper, freed the peasants. In actuality they were collectively responsible for redemption payments to the government for a number of years

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Father Gapon

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Leader of the factory workers who assembled before the czar's palace to petition him on January 1905 (Bloody Sunday).

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Ivan the Great-- (1462-1505 )

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The Slavic Grand Duke of Moscow, he ended nearly 200 years of Mongol domination of his dukedom. From then on he worked at extending his territories, subduing he nobles, and attaining absolute power

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Ivan the Terrible--(1533-1584)

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earned his nickname for his great acts of cruelty directed toward all those with whom he disagreed. He became the first ruler to assume the title Czar of all Russia

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Kulak

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An independent and propertied Russian farmer

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Mir

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Village commune where the emancipated serfs lived and worked collectively in order to meet redemption payments to the government

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Nicholas II (1894-1917)

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The last czar of the Romanov dynasty, whose government collapsed under the pressure of World War I

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Sofia Perovskiai

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The first woman to be executed for a political crime in Russia. She was a member of a militant movement that assassinated Czar Alexander II in 1881

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Pugachev (1726-1775)

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Head of the bloody peasant revolt in 1773 that convinced Catherine the Great to throw her support to the nobles and cease internal reforms

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Peter Stolypin (1862-1911)

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Russian minister under Nicholas II who encouraged the growth of private farmers and improved education for enterprising peasants

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Michael Romanov

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In 1613 an assembly of nobels chose Michael as the new czar. For the next 300 years the Romanov family ruled in Russia

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Sergei Witte (1849-1915 )

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Finance minister under whom Russia industrialized and began a program of economic modernization, founder of the Transiberian Railroad

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Zemstovo

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A type of local government with powers to tax and make laws; essentially, a training ground for democracy, dominated by the property-owning class when established in 1864