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139 Cards in this Set
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- Back
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What is external respiration? |
Exchange of gases between the external environment and the circulatory fluid. |
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What is internal respiration? |
The oxygen utilising chemical reactions of the cell in the mitochondria. |
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What are the four steps of external respiration? |
Ventilation Respiratory Exchange Circulation Cellular Exchange |
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What is ventilation? |
Exchange of gases with the external media and the respiratory surface of the lungs. |
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What is respiratory exchange? |
The exchange of gases between the respiratory surface and the circulatory system. |
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What is cellular exchange? |
Communication by gas exchange from the ECF to the ICF. |
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What is the solubility of Nitrogen in water at 37 degrees Celsius? |
0.012 |
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What is the solubility of Carbon Dioxide in water at 37 degrees Celsius? |
0.57 |
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What is the solubility of Oxygen in water at 37 degrees Celsius? |
0.024 |
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Explain Dalton's Law |
The total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures of each gas in the mixture. |
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What is Henry's Law? |
The volume of gas dissolved is equal to the pressure of the gas multiplied by the solubility coefficient. The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas with which the liquid is in equilibrium. |
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What is Fick's Law of Diffusion? |
The rate of diffusion (Q) is equal to A times D times P1 minus P2 divided by T |
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What is Boyle's Law? |
For a fixed amount of an ideal gas kept at a fixed temperature, the pressure and volume are inversely proportional. |
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What is tidal breathing? |
Like a tidal wave, air flows in and out of the same opening, causing some mixing. |
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What is flow-through breathing? |
Unidirectional flow of external media yielding a greater oxygen uptake as their is no mixing. |
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What are the three types of flow-through breathing? |
Concurrent Exchange Cross-current exchange Counter-current exchange |
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What is concurrent exchange? |
External medium and blood flowing in the same direction. Partial pressure gradient approaches equilibrium and diffusion becomes less. This is less efficient. |
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What is cross-current exchange? |
The external media flows at a right angle to blood flow. This is efficient as partial pressure of oxygen is greater than the outgoing media. |
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What is counter-current exchange? |
The external media and blood flow in opposing directions but they are parallel. The partial pressure gradient and diffusion is constant. This is efficient as partial pressure is greater than the external media. |
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What is the flow-through breathing type for gills? |
Counter-current flow |
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Anatomically describe the gills |
They consist of several gill arches, each arch has two rows of filaments further subdivided into thin lamellae. |
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Describe the dual pumping system of water flowing over the gills. |
A buccal pressure pump facilitates the opening and closing of the fish's mouth. An opercular pump facilitates the opening and closing of the operculum. |
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What makes the gills an efficient respiratory surface? |
It is specialised. Provides a large surface area for gas exchange. The area of the gill is proportional to how active the fish is. |
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How many times do the airways divide from the trachea to the alveoli? |
23 times |
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What type of dead space resides in the upper respiratory tract? |
Anatomical dead space |
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What are the functions of the upper respiratory tract? |
Warming Humidification Filtration of air Trapping of dust via an mucociliary escalator. |
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What is found in the bronchioles but not in the alveoli? |
Cartilage |
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What type of tissue increases from the trachea to the bronchioles? |
Smooth muscle |
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What three cell types are found in alveoli? |
Type 1 Alveoli Cells Type 2 Alveoli Cells Macrophages |
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What type of epithelium denotes an type 1 alveoli cell? |
Single thin layer of squamous cells |
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What type of epithelium denotes a type 2 alveoli cell? |
Large cuboidal cells |
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What separates the lungs from the thoracic wall and what is found in it? |
The pleural sac containing the interpleural space between the visceral pleura and parietal pleura. In this space is intrapleural fluid. |
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What is intrapleural pressure and what is it characterised by? |
The pressure of the intrapleural fluid within the interpleural space. It is negative pressure that holds the lungs open. |
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What is traumatic pneumothorax? |
The pressure of the intrapleural fluid being equal to that of the atmosphere, collapsing the lungs. |
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What is the mechanics behind the negative intrapleural pressure in quiet respiration? |
The intrapleural pressure becomes more negative in quiet inspiration as the lungs are pushing on the thoracic wall and the intrapleural pressure becomes less negative during quiet expiration as the lung relaxes. |
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Describe the mechanics of negative intrapleural pressure in strong respiration. |
The intrapleural pressure can range from negative to positive values. |
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What is the alveolar/intrapulmonary pressure and its values during respiration? |
The pressure of air inside the lung alveoli. During normal inspiration, pressure will be -1mmHg and will rise to +1mmHg during normal expiration. |
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What is transpulmonary pressure? |
The difference between alveoli pressure and intrapleural pressure. |
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What happens to the lungs when the intrapleural pressure becomes more positive? |
The lungs become more distended. |
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How do you calculate transpulmonary pressure? |
Alveolar pressure minus intrapleural pressure. |
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What happens to lung volume and pressure during inspiration? |
Lung volume increases. Pressure inside the lung decreases. |
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What happens to the lung volume and pressure during expiration? |
Lung volume decreases. Pressure inside the lung decreases. |
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What are the respiratory mechanics during inspiration? |
Inspiratory muscles contract. Thoracic cage expands. Intrapleural pressure becomes more subatmosphereic. Transpulmonary pressure rises. Lungs expand. Alveolar pressure becomes subatmospheric. Air flows into the alveoli. |
I Think People Triumph Laughing About ********. |
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What are the respiratory mechanics during expiration? |
Inspiratory muscles relax. Chest wall moves inward. Intrapleural pressure moves back towards preinspiratory value. Transpulmonary pressure moves back towards preinspiratory value. Lungs recoil towards preinspiration size. Alveolar pressure becomes greater than atmospheric pressure. Air flows out of the lungs. |
I Carry Icicles To Little ******** About |
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What is different about the respiration cycle of horses? |
They have two inspiratory and two expiratory phases. |
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What happens to breathing and energy requirements during physical activity? |
Depth and rate of breathing increases making both inspiration and respiration active processes. |
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What is volunteer apnea and what type of animals does this phenomenon occur in? |
Temporary cessation of breathing in diving animals where they instead utilise an oxygen reserve in their blood supply. |
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What is Eupnea? |
Normal quiet breathing. |
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What is Hyperpnea? |
Increased depth and frequency of breathing as seen in physical activity. |
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What is Tachypnea? |
Excessive and rapid breathing. |
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What is Bradypnea? |
Abnormal slowness of breathing. |
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What is Polypnea? |
Rapid and shallow breathing as seen in panting. |
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What is Dysnpea? |
Difficult, painful, laboured breathing as seen in pathological issues. |
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What is Apnea? |
Cessation of breathing. |
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Describe the lungs of a bird? |
Relatively rigid and do not distend. |
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How are the air sacs of birds groupes? |
Either a cranial anterior group or a caudal posterior group. |
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True or False: Both inspiration and expiration in a bird are active at rest. |
True |
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In a bird, how is pressure in the air sacs increased and decreased? |
Respiratory muscles move the sternum. |
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In a bird, what are the lungs and air sacs used for? |
The lungs are used for gas exchange and the air sacs are used to provide unidirectional air flow to the rigid lungs. |
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What are the two main groups of bronchi and how are they connected in the bird? |
Ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi in each lung, they are connected by the parabronchi. |
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Where are capillaries found in the avian lung? |
In the parabronchi. |
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Describe the two breathing cycles required to move air through the entire respiratory system of a bird. |
Inhalation: air passed into posterior air sacs and the anterior air sacs expand as they recieve the air from the lungs from previous inspiration. Expiration: air is moved from the posterior air sacs into the parabronchi of the lungs while air from the anterior sacs leaves the airways. |
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What type of flow-through breathing do birds utilise? |
Cross-current |
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State three reasons why avian gas exchange is more efficient than mammalian gas exchange. |
Narrow diffusion distance. Flow-through movement of air. Blood flows cross-current to the flow of air. |
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What is lung compliance? |
The ease at which the lungs expand, the greater the change in lung volume for a certain pressure, the greater compliance. |
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What three factors influence lung compliance? |
Lung elastic tissues. Thoracic elastic tissues. Alveolar surface tension. |
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What happens to lung compliance in emphysema? |
There is higher than normal compliance, the lung inflates easily and has little elastic recoil causing difficulty with expiration. |
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What happens to lung compliance in fibrosis? |
There is a lower than normal compliance, requiring greater force and energy to expand the lungs during inspiration. |
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What is lung surface tension? |
Water molecules pulling eachother minimising surface area which can collapse the alveoli. |
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What is surfactant and what does it do? |
It is secreted by type 2 alveolar cells to reduce the surface tension of the alveolar fluid. The surfactant has a hydrophilic and hydrophobic part, the hydrophobic tails face the lumen of the alveoli preventing accumulation of fluid in the lungs. |
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What is barker syndrome? |
Inadequate production of surfactant therefore requiring an excessive force to distend the lungs during inspiration causing rapid expiration. |
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What is tidal volume? |
The volume of air inhaled or exhaled per breath. |
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Define inspiratory reserve volume |
The amount of additional air that can be taken into the lungs after a normal inspiration. |
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Define expiratory reserve volume. |
The amount of additional air that can be forced out of the lungs after normal expiration. |
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What is residual volume? |
The amount of air left in the lungs after maximum expiration, this cannot be measured by spirometry. |
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How is inspiratory capacity calculated? |
Tidal Volume + Inspiratory Reserve Volume |
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How is functional residual capacity calculated? |
Expiratory Reserve Volume + Reserve Volume |
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What is vital capacity? |
The maximum amount of air that can be moved out of the lungs after maximal inspiration. |
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How is vital capacity calculated? |
Expiratory Reserve Volume + Tidal Volume + Inspiratory Reserve Volume |
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How is total lung capacity calculated? |
Vital Capacity + Residual Volume |
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What is minute ventilation? |
The amount of air in liters that an individual breathes per minute. |
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How is minute ventilation calculated? |
Respiratory Rate × Tidal Volume |
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What is a restrictive respiratory disorder and what type of breathing pattern does it characterise? |
Caused by diseases restricting lung expansion and respiration is usually rapid and shallow. |
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What is an obstructive respiratory disease and what type of breathing pattern is it characterised by? |
Caused by airway obstruction generally characterised by decreasing the airway diameter during expiration. Animals usually adapt a slow and deep pattern of breathing. |
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What is peak flow expiratory rate? |
The maximum flow rate generated during expiration performed with maximal force and a deep breath. |
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What is peak flow inspiratory rate? |
The fastest flow rate acheived during inspiration. |
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What is anatomical dead space? |
The space of the respiratory tract not involved in gas exchange. |
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True or False: All of minute ventilation contribites to gas exchange. |
False |
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What is wasted ventilation? |
Ventilation to non conducting zones |
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What is alveolar ventilation? |
Ventilation contributing to gas exchange. |
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What is alveolar dead space? |
Gases that enter the alveoli that do not participate in gas exchange, occurring in pathological conditions. |
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What is physiological dead space? |
Combined volume of anatomic and alveolar dead space. |
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What is alveolar ventilation? |
The total volume of new air entering the alveoli per minute. |
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How is alveolar ventilation calculated? |
The tidal volume minus dead space volume, multiplied by respiratory rate. |
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How is alveolar ventilation calculated? |
The tidal volume minus dead space volume, multiplied by respiratory rate. |
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How do you minimise mechanical dead space volume in an anaethetised patient? |
Minimise the number of connectors attached to the endotracheal tube. |
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What are the three reasons that alveolar air differs from atmospheric air? |
Alveolar air is only partially replaced by atmospheric air with tidal breathing. Humidification. Continuous gas exchange. |
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What is Hypoxemia? |
Low arterial oxygen partial pressure due to a mismatch between the distribution of ventilation and pulmonary blood flow. |
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What are the two control mechanisms in place to ensure ventilation is equivalent to perfusion? |
The bronchioles will dilate as a response to increased alveolar carbon dioxide due to increased pulmonary blood flow. The bronchioles will constrict as a response to decreased alveolar carbon dioxide due to decreased pulmonary blood flow. |
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What is a shunt? |
Perfusion without ventilation. |
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What is dead space? |
Ventilation without perfusion. |
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Why does blood have to carry more gas than it can dissolve? |
Oxygen and carbon dioxide have poor solubilites in plasma. |
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How much oxygen is bound by haemoglobin? |
98.5% |
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True or False: oxygen bound to haemoglobin does not contribute to the partial pressure of oxygen. |
True |
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How many mL of oxygen does one gram of haemoglobin bind to? |
1.34mL |
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Describe the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve. |
Sigmoid shape. Flat portion favours binding at lungs where there is high oxygen partial pressure. Steep portion favours binding at tissues where there is low oxygen partial pressure. |
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How much of oxygen bound haemoglobin is released in one respiratory cycle at rest and why is this significant? |
25%, significant as it is a reserve for increased metabolic states. |
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Describe the Bohr effect |
Increase of carbon dioxide in the blood and a decrease in pH reduces haemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. |
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At what pressures does oxygen diffuse from the blood to the tissues? |
Blood is 100mm of Hg Tissue is 40mm of Hg |
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True or False: the loading of oxygen is favoured in active tissues during physical activity. |
False |
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What type of affinity and action does the haemoglobin of small animals with a high metabolic rate have? |
Haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen favouring unloading. |
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What type of haemoglobin do animals that live in low oxygen environments have? |
Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen. |
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True or False: Small mammals with a high oxygen requirement have a haemoglobin less sensitive to hydrogen ions favouring loading. |
False |
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True or False: Fetal haemoglobin in most mammals has a lower affinity for oxygen than adult mammals. |
False |
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What are the three forms that carbon dioxide is transported in and their percentages in the blood. |
60% bicarbonate ions 30% bound to haemoglobin 10% dissolved in blood |
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What is hypoxia? |
Insufficient oxygen at the cellular level. |
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What is hypoxic hypoxia? |
Less oxygen diffusion at higher altitudes. |
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What is anaemic hypoxia? |
Inadequate haemoglobin. |
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What is circulatory hypoxia? |
Heart failure. |
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What is histotoxic hypoxia? |
Cyanide poisoning. |
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What is cyanosis? |
Bluey purple skin and mucous membrane discolouration due to an elevated blood concentration of deoxygenated haemoglobin. |
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What is hypercapnia? |
Excessive carbon dioxide in the arterial blood effecting the acid-base balance causing hypoventilation. |
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Where is carbon dioxide converted to bicarbonate? |
In the red blood cells close to the tissue. |
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What do the liberated hydrogen ions do as a result of bicarbonate formation? |
Bind to haemoglobin releasing the oxygen bohr effect |
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What are the carbonate ions transported in exchange of? |
Chloride ions |
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What parts of haemoglobin does oxygen and carbon dioxide bind to? |
Oxygen binds to heme Carbon dioxide binds to globin |
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What is the haldane effect? |
Removal of oxygen from haemoglobin increasing its affinity for carbon dioxide, favouring its loading. |
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At what partial pressures does exchange of carbon dioxide at the tissues into the blood take place? |
Tissue is 46mm of Hg Blood is 40mm of Hg |
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What are the three components of respiratory control in mammals? |
Rhythmic neural activation for involuntary control. Regulation of ventilation magnitude to match physiological needs. Respiration modification to serve other purposes. |
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What is responsible for rhythmic discharge? |
The dorsal and ventral respiratory groups of neurons in the medulla. |
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Describe the dorsal inspiratory group. |
Consists of mostly inspiratory neurons that when activated cause inspiration by stimulating the phrenic nerve and intercostal nerves. Driven by pre-Botzinger complex neurons in the upper part of the medulla. |
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Describe the ventral respiratory group. |
Made of both inspiratory and expiratory neurons that become active in forceful breathing when demands for ventilation are increased. This activates all respiratory muscles. |
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What role do the pons play in rhythmic neural discharge? |
Fine-tune breathing. |
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What role does the pneumotaxic center play in rhythmic neural discharge? |
Inhibits impulses to the medulla and decreases inspiration time. |
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What works against the pneumotaxic center by activating the medulla respiratory neurons to increase respiration time? |
The apneustic center. |
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What regulates the magnitude of ventilation to match physiological needs? |
Partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as the presence of hydrogen ions. |
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What two types of chemoreceptors detect changes in blood concentration of hydrogen ions, carbon dioxide and oxygen? |
Central chemoreceptors in the medulla and the peripheral chemoreceptors situated in the carotid and aortic bodies. |
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What stimulates the central chemoreceptors? |
A rise in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide which in turn increases hydrogen ion presence in the interstitial fluid of the brain. |
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What stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors? |
A decrease in arterial partial pressure of oxygen concentration. |
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