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73 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How do we know things? (Non-scientific Methods) |
Method of Authority Method of Tenacity Priory Method Introspection Personal Experience |
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Scientific Method |
Empirical Analytical |
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Method of Authority |
Taking someone else's word on faith; a fixing belief because they are an authority figure. |
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Method of Tenacity |
When a person steadfastly refuses to alter their acquired knowledge, regardless of evidence to the contrary. |
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A Priori Method |
A priori refers to something that is believed without prior study or examination. Propositions that seem reasonable are believed. General culture outlook fixes the belief. |
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Personal Experience |
An experience that happens to a person first hand. |
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Introspection |
Thinking about how things work, based on whatyou know. EX: Like asking a child about how cars work and they tell you about it, but it's fanciful and wrong because they don't know much about it |
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A Scientific method |
Fixed beliefs based on experience. A repeatable, self-correcting undertaking that seeks to understand phenomena on the basis of empirical observation. |
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Empirical |
Based on data obtained by systematic observationSelf-correcting |
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Analytic |
Break down complex phenomena into constituent parts
Confirmation by synthesis Real Theoretical |
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Scientific procedures |
Description Prediction Explanation |
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Description |
Based on observation |
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Prediction |
Based on established relationship involves correlation |
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Explanation |
Establishes conditions under which phenomenon occurs based on experimentation-manipulate variables thought to underlie the phenomenon. Independent variable is manipulated Dependent variable is measured (the effect) |
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Ways of Reasoning |
Induction Deduction |
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Induction |
Reasoning proceeds from particular data to a general theory. Reasoning from specific to general cases |
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Deduction |
Emphasizes theory predicting data; reasoning proceeds from a general theory to particular data Reasoning from general to specific cases |
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Falsifiability View |
The temporary nature of induction makes negative evidence more important than a positive support. Confirmation does not "prove" a theory Disconfirmation is useful. |
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Theory |
Organizes and predicts data A set of statements that explain a variety of occurrences |
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Strong inference |
Eliminating possible alternative explanations |
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Abductions |
Creative reasoning that may not be correct |
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Evaluating theories |
Parsimony Precision Testability |
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Parsimony |
Can explain many occurrences with few statements |
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Precision |
The more precise, the better (best if quantitative) |
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Testability |
If can't test the theory, it can't be falsified |
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Descriptive Observational Methods |
Naturalistic Observation Case Study Survey Meta Analysis |
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Hypotheses |
Generalizations are either: Inductive-derived from experience Deductive-derived from theory |
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Good Laboratory Research |
Examines psychological processes Shows what can happen in a controlled setting May have more force than real-life research |
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Threats to Validity |
Reactivity; reaction of subjects Volunteer Problem |
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Naturalistic Observations |
use unobtrusive observations use unobtrusive measures |
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Case Studies |
Problems: forgetting "repression" Get corroborative evidence |
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Surveys, interviews, tests |
Response style: Habitual ways of responding Response acquiescence (yea saying) Response deviation (nay saying) Social Desirability Use forced choice between equally desirable/undesirable alternatives |
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Volunteer Problem |
Volunteers differ in various ways from non-volunteers May limit generality Also, in surveys, don't anything about non-responders |
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Survey |
A method for obtaining information (often quantitative) from a sample of people representing some population. |
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Meta-Analysis |
A relatively objective technique for summarizing across many studies investigating a single topic |
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The Correlation Coefficient |
E.G. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) Range: -1 - +1 Benefit of high correlation-allows for predictions |
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Interpreting Correlations |
Correlation does not imply causation Third variable problem |
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No Correlation means, No causation |
May have truncated Range If restricted sample, may have too little variability in data Relationship may not be linear |
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"Control" denotes three thing: |
A control condition, for purposes of comparison The treatment is produced or manipulated Certain aspects of the experimental setting are held constant |
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Three kinds of variables: |
Independent variable (manipulated) Dependent variable (measured) Control variables (held constant by experimenter) |
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The Logic of the Comparison |
Group Treatment Experimental independent variable + extraneous variables Control No independent variable + Extraneous Variables |
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Null Effects |
1. Independent variable has no effect 2. Independent variable not adequately manipulated 3. Problem with dependent variable (e.g. "floor" or "ceiling" effects) 4. Insufficient control of extraneous (control) variables |
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Multiple Independent Variables |
1. Advantages over single experiments More efficient than multiple single experiments Better experimental control Easier to hold control variables constant than with multiple single experiments Allows for interactions
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Interactions |
When effects produced by one independent variable are not the same across levels of a second independent variable |
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Why use animals? |
Ethics Experimental Control |
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Types of use |
Biomedical/behavior research Teaching Drug & Product Testing |
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Oversight |
Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee (IACUC) APA guidelines NIH guide for the care and use of laboratory animals U.S. Dept of Agriculture Regulations |
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Objection |
Animal Welfare Animal "Rights" 1. Moderates 2. Militants (PETA) 3. Terrorists (ALF) |
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Rationale |
1. All Animals can suffer Animals=humans animals, like humans, have rights 2. "A rat is a pig is a dog is a boy" (PETA) species-ism is like racism |
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Response |
Do animals have rights? Cohen: Having a moral "sense" Rights and the "Law of Survival" Do humans have a responsibility? Benefits of animal research |
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Principles of learning |
Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning |
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Treatment of enuresis (bed wetting) |
Difficult to discriminate when bladder is full while sleeping Punishment comes too long afterward Devised pad-first trace of moisture sounds bell |
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Teaching Machines (programmed learning) |
Chimps in space worked on automated equipment; showed feasibility of space flight with zero gravity Programmed instruction in industry, military |
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Behavioral Psychotherapy |
Behavior modification based on principles of reinforcement, extinction Desensitization therapy based on counter conditioning (e.g. snake phobia) Treatment of depression |
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Learned Compensation for deafferntation |
Taub's work on deafferented Monkeys (disuse) |
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Effect of Stress |
Controllable vs. Uncontrollable Differences in behavior, neurochemistry |
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Alleviation of Pain |
Discovery of pain suppression system Endorphins |
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Behavioral Pharmacology |
Studies of addiction Anorexigens to treat obesity Animal models (antipsychotics, anxiolytics) |
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Animal Companions for the handicapped |
Training seeing eye dogs |
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Neuroscience |
Recovery from brain damage Fetal alcohol syndrome Effects of aging on learning and memory Alzheimers, Parkinsonism |
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IRB Institutional Review Board |
Required for any institution that receives government funding Oversees the protects human participants (IRB) andanimal subjects (IACUC) Approves and supervises your study |
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Five qualified members review the kind of research typically conducted at that institutions
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Needs to include:
◦1 member whose area of expertise lies with vulnerable populations ◦1 member whose primary concern is in the scientific area ◦1 member whose primary concern is not in the scientific area ◦1 member (usually an attorney) to ascertain if research will violate laws/regulations ◦1 member not must be not be affiliated with the institution |
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Informed Consent |
Provides information about the aims of the study(unless it will compromise the study) Details possible risks and possible benefits Informs confidentiality procedures Informs rights of withdrawal Must be easily understandable |
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Deception |
In certain instances, it is necessary to the integrityof the experiment to withhold information from participants
Usually tominimize participant’s reactions And get a real reaction from a participant |
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Ethics and Deception |
Deception is only permitted when it is absolutely necessary (i.e., there is no way to address the researchquestion without deceiving) Deceptive tactics must be approved by the IRB May not deceive participants about physical pain oremotional distress Required to debrief the participant at the conclusion of the experiment ◦Inform theparticipant about the true nature of the experiment and how they were deceived |
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Risk Benefit |
Research is unethical if it does not take the propersteps to… ◦Maximizebenefit ◦Minimize harm The IRB will not approve research unless it presents aclear benefit to science or specific application The IRB will not approve research that does not takeevery step to minimize physical or emotional distress to the participant |
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Debriefing and Protection from harm |
At the end of the experiment, participants should belearn about the experiment—its purpose, implications, risks, etc. Participants should be provided with contactinformation for the experimenter, appropriate administrators (e.g., IRB), orany other relevant services (e.g., counseling) after the experiment◦May beunintended/unforeseen effects Debriefing may alleviateconcerns/questions/consequences Debriefing is often an educational opportunity formany students |
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Removing Harmful Consequences |
When risks are present, the researcher must work tominimize/prevent them In the event of consequences that persist afterdebriefing, the researcher is obligated to provide resources to attempt toremove them ◦Access tocounseling ◦A place torest ◦Safetransportation home, etc.
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Confidentiality |
All questionnaires, videos, audiotapes, and otherresearch materials must be kept in a locked room or encrypted system (oftenlimited to the access of only the researchers) Identifying information (e.g., name, SSN, address)must be removed and stored separately from the data Failure to properly secure this information may causethe IRB to revoke the approval for the study Sometimes there may be a conflict that requires you tobreak confidentiality ◦E.g., childwith an extremely high depression score ◦IRB mayrecommend breaking confidentiality in this case ◦Consult theIRB! |
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Freedom to Withdraw |
Participants may withdraw at any time, forany reason, without any consequence Signing the informed consent does not bind aparticipant to an experiment There should be no questions asked if a participantwants to withdraw There should be absolutely no pressure to continue astudy against a participant’s will Incentives (money, treatment) should not be so largethat participants feel coerced ◦Participantmay be uncomfortable, but compelled to continue the study due to the financialreward ◦Participantmay be uncomfortable, but unable to get medical treatment outside of the study |
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Accuracy in Reporting Research |
Never fabricate or falsify data Document alterations to data (e.g., statisticalmanipulation, data removal) Report analyses even if they do not support conclusions Identify any source(s) of research funding◦Conflict ofinterest Include any information that might change theinterpretation of the results Be well-versed on how to avoid all types of plagiarism◦Missingcitations, reprinted figures, misrepresenting your or others’ work |
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When conducting research with human participants, an ethical researcher: |
◦Ensures thatparticipants are fully informed as to the experimental procedure, and give their consent beforebeginning the experiment ◦Uses deception only whenthere is no other way to answer the research question and only when thepotential benefits far exceed the risks ◦Ensures thatparticipants feel free to withdraw at anytime, without penalty or the fear of penalty ◦Removesharmful consequences resulting from the experiment ◦Maintains confidentiality regardinginformation about participants acquired during the course of the experiment ◦Submitsresearch project to the IRB for the approval before beginning the research |
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Tuskegee Syphilis Study |
Researchers wanted to study the natural progression ofsyphilis Studied hundreds of African American participants Did not inform participants that they had syphilis Did not treat them for syphilis Study went on for 40 years! Led to the creation of the Belmont Report and therequirement for the IRB |
