Rel100 Islam

Front 1

Allah

Back 1

Islam began in Arabia in the seventh century CE with the teachings of the prophet Muhammad. The society into which Muhammad was born was religiously diverse. Arabia was primarily populated by nomadic tribes who herded animals. They practiced a polytheistic religion, worshiping tribal deities and also reverencing ancestors, nature spirits, and a class of mischievous spirits called jinn. Above all these deities and spirits, they worshiped a high god named ______________.

Front 2

ancient Arabian religion

Back 2

Allah was supreme in ______________, but he was fairly remote from human concerns, so appeal was more often made to intermediate deities such as Hubal, the god of the moon, or al-Manat, the goddess of fate. Bringing some unity to this diverse region was an annual practice of pilgrimage to Mecca, a relatively large city, where the Kaaba, a temple housing a large meteorite, stood surrounded by 360 images of various deities.

Front 3

polytheistic

Back 3

Although the Arabs were ______________ themselves, they were familiar with monotheistic religions. As a nomadic people, they traveled frequently to other areas and knew of the existence of both Judaism and Christianity. Indeed, small populations of Jews and Christians lived in Arabia and larger populations were nearby in Persia and the Middle East.

Front 4

Muhammad

Back 4

According to reports collected about ______________ in the first century or so after his death, ______________ was born in 570 CE in Mecca, in what is now Saudi Arabia. He was born into the Quraysh tribe, a powerful group in Arab society. ______________ was orphaned at a young age, and raised first by his grandfather and later by his uncle. As a teenager, he became a caravan driver, trading as far north as Syria for his employer Khadijah, a widow who was running her deceased husband's business.

Front 5

Khadijah

Back 5

When Muhammad was 25 years old, he married his employer, ______________, who was then 40 years old. According to biographies of Muhammad, they had six children together: two boys who died as infants, and four daughters who lived to adulthood. By all accounts, theirs was a happy marriage. Though polygamy was commonly practiced in Arabia, Muhammad did not take another wife while ______________ was alive.

Front 6

bright presence

Back 6

As an adult, Muhammad became interested in spiritual matters. He had dreams that he felt were visionary, and made occasional religious retreats to the mountains around Mecca. In 610 CE, when he was forty years old, he made one such retreat to a cave on Mount Hira. There, Muhammad experienced a startling vision. A "______________" approached him and commanded him to "recite." Muhammad answered that he was illiterate, but was again commanded to "recite."

Front 7

Gabriel

Back 7

After his confrontation with the bright presence in the cave on Mt. Hira, Muhammad hurried home. Shivering and wrapping himself in blankets, he cried out to his wife Khadijah, asking her if she thought he had lost his mind. Khadijah felt that Muhammad's revelation had been authentic. She took Muhammad to visit her cousin, Waraqa, who was a Christian. Waraqa concurred that Muhammad's revelation was from God, and that the bright presence that had appeared to him was the angel ______________.

Front 8

inhumane

Back 8

Muhammad continued to have further revelations after the first. During these revelations he was clearly told that there was only one God, and that worshiping others, especially in the form of ious images, was an offense against him. Muhammad took this message to the Meccans. In addition to speaking out against Meccan religious practices, Muhammad condemned social and economic practices that he saw as ______________, or deficient in compassion toward the less fortunate members of the society.

Front 9

night journey

Back 9

One of the most spectacular revelations Muhammad received is known as the miraj, or “_______________." While sleeping one night in Mecca, Muhammad was awakened by the angel Gabriel, who told him to mount a white animal called al-Buraq (usually pictured as a horse). Al-Buraq took Muhammad to Jerusalem, to the temple mount. There, the angel Gabriel offered Muhammad wine and milk. Muhammad chose the milk. Gabriel congratulated Muhammad on his choice and said that wine would be forbidden to Muhammad's followers.

Front 10

7

Back 10

Muhammad led all the prophets in prayer. Then, he was led up through ______________ levels of heaven. At each level of heaven, Muhammad met and spoke with another prophet of the Judeo-Christian tradition. These prophets included Adam, Jesus, John the Baptist, Joseph, Enoch, Aaron, Moses, and Abraham (Jesus and John the Baptist were together on one level of heaven).

Front 11

50

Back 11

At last Muhammad was led into the divine presence of Allah, who instructed Muhammad to have his followers pray ______________ times a day. On the way back down through heaven, Muhammad encountered Moses, who insisted that fifty prayers were too many, that this would be too great a hardship to impose on his people. Muhammad went back to Allah, who reduced the prayers to ten. Again, Moses said that this was too many, that it had been difficult enough getting the children of Israel to pray only three times a day.

Front 12

five

Back 12

Muhammad returned to Allah, who told him that it would be sufficient for Muslims to pray ______________ times a day, and that each prayer would count as ten prayers to bring them back to the original total of fifty prayers per day. Again Moses remonstrated with Muhammad, telling him to go back to Allah and ask for a further reduction. But Muhammad would not go, saying he would feel too ashamed to approach Allah again for another concession.

Front 13

actually performed

Back 13

Allah had also explained to Muhammad that a good deed contemplated, but not performed, would still count as a good deed, while a good deed ______________ would count as ten good deeds. An evil deed that was contemplated, but not performed, would not count at all, while an evil deed actually performed would only count as one evil deed. One of the adjectives Muslims most often apply to God is "merciful," and indeed in this interaction with Muhammad, God is merciful.

Front 14

Muhammad's teachings

Back 14

Muhammad attracted some followers in Mecca, but overall, the Meccans were not pleased with him and his attacks on their behavior and beliefs. Khadijah died in 619 CE, and Muhammad's uncle died soon thereafter. After this, the Meccans plotted to kill Muhammad. By this time though, a number of Arabs from the city of Yathrib, three hundred miles north of Mecca, had begun to follow ______________. They offered Muhammad and all his Meccan followers a safe retreat.

Front 15

hijrah

Back 15

In 622 CE, Muhammad's followers, and eventually Muhammad himself, escaped assassination plots in Mecca and took refuge in Yathrib. This migration to Yathrib is called the ______________, or “flight." The year of the hijrah is recognized as the official beginning of the Islamic calendar, as it was the beginning of the spread of Islam. Upon Muhammad's arrival, the city of Yathrib took the name Medina, meaning "the city," or "the city of the prophet."

Front 16

Kaaba

Back 16

From their center in Medina, Muhammad's followers spread his teachings to neighboring lands. Gradually they became a force to be reckoned with. In 630 CE, Muhammad led a battle against the Meccans and was eventually victorious. Upon gaining control of Mecca, Muhammad immediately went to the ______________ and had all the images of other gods and goddesses destroyed, dedicating the ______________ to Islam. The meteorite housed in the ______________ was preserved, believed to be not an idol, but a gift from God.

Front 17

Arabia

Back 17

After Muhammad's armies took Mecca, Islam spread quickly, covering all of western ______________ as well as establishing an outpost in Oman on the other side of the Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad was spiritual, political, and military leader of this growing empire.

Front 18

Aisha

Back 18

After Khadijah's death, Muhammad married at least ten other women, and also had a few non-Muslim concubines who had been captured in battle or given to him as gifts. Muhammad did not have children with any of these women except for one son, who died in infancy, by a Coptic Christian concubine named Mary. Of all his wives, Muhammad's favorite was ______________, the daughter of his friend Abu Bakr. She played a major role in the development of Islam after Muhammad's death.

Front 19

Fatima

Back 19

Only one of Muhammad's six children survived him, his daughter ______________. She died within months of Muhammad's death when he was sixty-three years old. Muhammad's only grandchildren to survive into adulthood were ______________'s children. ______________ was married to Ali, a cousin and faithful follower of Muhammad. Together they had three sons and three daughters. Two daughters, Zeinab and Om Kolthum, survived, as did two sons, Hassan and Husayn, both of whom became very important in the development of Islam.

Front 20

Quran

Back 20

The ______________ is the most important text in Islam. It consists entirely of Muhammad's revelations from God. Muhammad received these revelations from the age of forty until his death at age sixty-three. Some commentators divide these into the Meccan revelations, received before the hijrah, and the Medinan ones, received afterwards. Since Muhammad was illiterate, he did not himself write down the revelations. His followers committed them to memory and recorded them later. Within a generation after Muhammad's death, these texts were compiled into an authoritative version.

Front 21

Christian New Testament

Back 21

The Quran is about the same length as the ______________. It is broken down into a total of 114 suras, or chapters, of varying lengths. The chapters are not arranged chronologically, in the order in which the revelations were received. Rather they are roughly ordered according to length, with the longer revelations appearing before the shorter ones. There are different types of material in the Quran: prayers, sermons, biblical stories, and advice on everyday matters.

Front 22

its Jewish and Christian predecessors

Back 22

Key passages in the Quran reveal the connection of Islam to ____________________________ . For example, the Quran relates the story of the Garden of Eden, though unlike the version in the Hebrew Bible, the version in the Quran states explicitly that Adam and Eve were equally responsible for their sin and that their sin is theirs alone, not carrying over to future generations of human beings.

Front 23

Ismail (Ishmael)

Back 23

Like Jews and Christians, Muslims consider Abraham the first patriarch or prophet: their ancestor chosen by God. Jews and Christians typically trace their lineage through Abraham's son Isaac, the son of his wife Sarah. Muslims, on the other hand, regard themselves as descended from ______________, the son Abraham had with Hagar, Sarah's slave.

Front 24

Hagar

Back 24

In the Hebrew scriptures, ______________ leaves Abraham and wanders in the wilderness where God helps her to find water and gives her strength. Likewise in the Quran, ______________ wanders in the desert, but the place where God assists her is near Mecca, near the Kaaba. In the Hebrew scriptures, God asks Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac. In the Quran, this story is told of Ismail. Like Isaac, Ismail is ultimately spared, an event that is celebrated during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.

Front 25

Arabic

Back 25

The Quran is written entirely in ______________. Though it has been translated into dozens of languages, it is believed that one cannot fully understand it except in ______________. Training in classical ______________, the language in which the Quran is written, is a regular part of Muslim education from South America to Indonesia and everywhere in between.

Front 26

beautifully poetic

Back 26

Believers and scholars alike remark on the ___________________ language of the Quran. The grace of the language is often said to stand as proof of the authenticity of Muhammad's prophethood. Just as Moses proved his prophethood by parting the Red Sea, or Jesus proved his by healing the sick, it is said that Muhammad's miracle was the Quran itself.

Front 27

with God from the beginning of time

Back 27

It is hard to overestimate the importance of the Quran to Islam. Some Muslim philosophers have even suggested that the Quran existed ______________, safeguarded in heaven until it was given to Muhammad. Because of this, the Quran sometimes takes on a talismanic significance, with believers carrying small copies as a form of protection. Muslims revere the Quran as Jews revere the Torah, kissing it and cleansing themselves before touching it.

Front 28

recitation

Back 28

"Quran" means ______________, and though the Quran is a written text, it is never far from its oral roots. Passages from the Quran are regularly recited during prayer. There are strong and ancient traditions of Quranic recitation in Islam that persist to the present day. It takes great skill and training to recite the Quran well. In many Muslim countries, recitation competitions are held regularly. These are quite popular, and may even be broadcast on the radio.

Front 29

fatiha

Back 29

This is the ______________, the opening prayer of the Quran:In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the MercifulPraise be to God, the Lord of the worlds,The infinitely Good, the all-Merciful, Master of the day of judgment.Thee we worship, and in Thee we seek help.Guide us on the straight path,The path of those on whom Thy grace is,Not those on whom Thy anger is,Nor those who are astray.

Front 30

calligraphy

Back 30

In addition to being recited, Quranic texts have been carved in stone, set in tile, and woven into textiles. With its curving lines and dots, Arabic lends itself beautifully to ______________. Quranic ______________ is especially important in Islam since representational art, whether of Allah, the Prophet, human beings, or animals, is either totally forbidden or generally frowned upon. As in Judaism, the letters of God's words have both sacred and artistic significance in Islam.

Front 31

Hadith

Back 31

The Quran's centrality in Islam is unquestioned. However, there are other textual sources as well. Of these, by far the most important are the ______________, or sayings of the Prophet (Muhammad). The Quran records Muhammad's revelations from Allah. Their authority is divine. The ______________ came from Muhammad. Though Muhammad is not divine, he is regarded by Muslims as the perfect human being, so everything he said during his life is thought to be of value.

Front 32

the Prophet

Back 32

The sayings of ______________ were handed down orally. Eventually the Hadith, or sayings, came to number in the tens of thousands. It was hard for Muslims to believe that all these hadith were authentic (that is, that they truly came from Muhammad). So, several Muslim scholars took it upon themselves to compile authoritative editions of the Hadith. In doing so, they asked the origin of each hadith and how well it fit with Muhammad's overall teachings.

Front 33

the line of transmission

Back 33

To authenticate the Hadith, scholars traced back ______________ for each hadith. If it reached to Muhammad's followers, companions, or wives, this lent it credibility. One of the most famous authoritative collections of the Hadith was compiled by al-Bukhari in the middle of the ninth century. It contains approximately three thousand hadith. However, there are other authoritative compilations belonging to both Sunni and Shiite branches of Islam, and a great many unofficial Hadith as well.

Front 34

Islamic law

Back 34

Another important set of Islamic texts consist of Sharia, or ______________. Outsiders are sometimes confused by the meaning of Sharia, thinking that it is a particular body of law drawn from the Quran that all Muslims everywhere regard as authoritative. Sharia is more accurately the concept of law as based on Islamic principles. Historically, and to the present day, there have been many different schools of Islamic law.

Front 35

gradually

Back 35

Sharia developed ______________ in the early years of Islam as Muslim judges rendered fatwas, or written legal opinions, on the cases they were called upon to adjudicate. From these, traditions of law were established. Though there are different schools of Islamic law, most Muslims agree there are four sources of law:• the Quran,• the Hadith,• the traditions of the ummah, or Muslim community, and• individual reasoning and the use of analogy.

Front 36

law

Back 36

In Islam, the most important religious scholarship has taken the form of discussions about Islamic ______________. Like Jewish ______________, Islamic ______________ speaks about both religious and secular duties. If anything, Islam's legal vision has been even broader. Throughout most of Jewish history, Jewish ______________ has been practiced by a community living under the governmental control of other religious and political groups. Islamic ______________, on the other hand, has been developed to apply to all levels of specifically Islamic states.

Front 37

philosophy

Back 37

Legal texts and debates have been the core of Islamic scholarship, but there have long been vital traditions of Islamic ______________ as well. In the early centuries of Islam, one debate among Muslim philosophers was about the nature of God's goodness and his commands. Was something good because God commanded it? Or did God command it because it was good? If the former was the case, the duty of Muslims would be to follow God's law, whatever it was (as revealed in the Quran). If the latter was the case, Muslims could consult their own rational nature on questions of ethics.

Front 38

prosperity of the Arab Empires

Back 38

The ______________ made it possible for many works of classical Greek philosophy to be translated into Arabic, including the writings of Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. (Christians in western Europe had access to these sources primarily through these Arabic translations.) In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, both Muslims and Christians held Muslim philosophers such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) in high esteem. However, the work of philosophers did not have the official standing within Islam that was given to the religious authorities who developed sharia.

Front 39

They are called the hadith.

Back 39

What are the sayings of Muhammad called?

Front 40

It's called Sharia.

Back 40

What is Islamic law called?

Front 41

only one God

Back 41

The most fundamental belief in Islam is that there is ______________. This truth was revealed to Muhammad and became the basis for his earliest actions, including cleansing the Kaaba of its idols. Like most religions, there are internal debates within Islam; even the most sacred matters have been open to discussion and questioning over the years. However, this has never been true of Islam's commitment to monotheism, which is unquestioned and absolutely foundational.

Front 42

Judaism

Back 42

As a monotheistic religion, Islam was from the beginning in contact and conversation with other monotheistic religions, most importantly Judaism and Christianity. Indeed, Islam sees itself as a continuation of the tradition that began in _____________ and moved through Christianity. Born into this plurality of monotheisms, Islam had to position itself with respect to the major beliefs of the religions it saw as its progenitors.

Front 43

original sin

Back 43

Muslims do not believe that people suffer from _____________, as do most Christians. It is the nature of people to be sinful, but it is also their nature to be good. Through correct cultivation of a relationship to Allah, Muslims believe they can and will become better. Lacking a belief in original sin, Islam does not require a doctrine of salvation. No sacrifice, like Jesus' on the cross, is necessary to heal a breach between God and humanity.

Front 44

special religious observances

Back 44

Islam places certain restrictions on sexual behavior, confining it mainly to marriage. In addition, some marriages are prohibited, and sexual contact may be forbidden during _____________ such as pilgrimage to Mecca. Overall, Islam does not put any value on celibacy per se. Indeed, Muhammad himself had many wives and taught that marriage was an obligation for every Muslim who was physically and financially capable of it.

Front 45

final judgment

Back 45

Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam teaches there will be a _____________ in which God will welcome some into heaven and banish others to hell. Again, like Judaism and Christianity, Islam does not imagine that at the final judgment, the dead will be in the form of disembodied souls, but rather that people will be judged and received in their bodies, as they were on earth.

Front 46

prophet

Back 46

Muslims regard themselves as descendants of Abraham's son Ismail (Ishmael), and therefore as part of the same family as Jews. During his time in Medina, Muhammad governed the Jewish community there. Relations between them were not always smooth. Muhammad did not accept the authority of all Hebrew scriptures and he regarded Jesus as a _____________ from the Jewish line, both of which were unacceptable to the Jews of Medina. In addition, some members of the Jewish population aided Muhammad's enemies in Mecca.

Front 47

Jewish prophet

Back 47

There is some evidence that earlier in his life Muhammad hoped to be accepted as a _____________ and bring the Jewish people into the new religion of Islam. At first, Muhammad taught his followers to face Jerusalem when they prayed. After his rejection by the Jews of Medina, it was revealed to Muhammad that he and his followers should face Mecca.

Front 48

most akin to the son of Mary among the whole of mankind

Back 48

His wife's Christian cousin, Waraqa, confirmed Muhammad's first revelation as authentic. Clearly, from the beginning Muhammad recognized himself as part of a tradition that included Christianity. Muhammad regarded Jesus as a prophet. He even said in a hadith that he was "____________________________________________________," and remarked, "no Prophet was raised between me and him [Jesus]."

Front 49

tritheism

Back 49

Although Muhammad regarded Jesus as an important prophet, he rejected the central doctrines of Christianity as misunderstandings of Jesus' message. The Christian doctrine of the trinity was, for Muhammad, not monotheism but "_____________." To regard a human being as an incarnation of God, as Christians did Jesus, was blasphemy, for God could not be reduced or limited in any way, or have anyone else elevated to his status.

Front 50

divinity

Back 50

Muhammad's beliefs regarding the complete singularity and transcendence of God made it impossible for him to understand himself as divine. Muhammad never made the slightest claim to _____________. He described himself as a prophet, chosen by God, another in a long line of prophets that God had raised up to give his message to humankind. Muhammad's special significance lay in the fact that he was the final, most universal prophet or, as Muslims say, "the seal of the prophets."

Front 51

spirits and jinn

Back 51

In spite of its unwavering commitment to monotheism, Islam recognizes a number of supernatural or semi-divine beings that are neither human nor god. Among these are most obviously the angels. It was the angel Gabriel that first spoke to Muhammad in the cave at Mt. Hira and who later took Muhammad on his night journey to Jerusalem. Popular Islam also makes reference to _____________, the mischevious spirits of ancient Arabian religion referred to as "genies" in the West. In Islam, the jinn became spirits created by Allah to give him praise.

Front 52

people of the book

Back 52

Because of the clear ties between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Muhammad taught that Jews and Christians should have a special, protected status within Islamic communities as "_____________.” Though Muslims regard Jews and Christians as misguided in one or more ways, they believe that Jews and Christians are worshiping in relationship to the genuine revelations of Allah recorded in the Torah and the Gospels.

Front 53

five pillars of Islam

Back 53

Islamic religious practice is traditionally summed up in the form of the "_____________":

• Testimony (Shahadah),

• Prayer (Salaat),

• Charity to the Poor (Zakat),

• Fasting (Sawm), and

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).

Front 54

Testimony

Back 54

_____________, or shahadah, is the fundamental statement of Muslim faith: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger." It is a regular part of prayer, and is traditionally the first phrase whispered into the ears of newborn babies and over the bodies of those about to die. It is also the means through which one converts to Islam. Simply repeating this phrase twice, in the presence of two Muslim witnesses, serves as conversion to Islam.

Front 55

muezzin

Back 55

Muslims are supposed to pray five times a day: between dawn and sunrise, at noon, in the afternoon, at sunset, and at night before midnight. In Muslim countries, the faithful are called to prayer by a _____________, a person who stands at the top of the local mosque's minaret and sings loudly "Allahu akbar" ("God is most great") four times, repeating the shahadah twice before inviting all Muslims to come to prayer.

Front 56

prayer rug

Back 56

The first step in Muslim prayer is purification. While concentrating on one's intention to pray, one recites in the name of Allah” while washing one's hands, mouth, face, arms, head, and feet with water. (Sand may be used if water is not available.) Prayers are usually performed on a _____________. Customarily these rugs are symmetrical along their vertical axis, but have a definite top and bottom so that it is clear which end points toward Mecca.

Front 57

the fatiha

Back 57

Prayers consist mainly of the recitation of the shahadah, followed by _____________, the opening prayer of the Quran, and an additional sura from the Quran selected for the specific time of day. Prayers are accompanied by several sets of prostrations that include bowing, kneeling, and placing the forehead on the ground.

Front 58

Friday

Back 58

On _____________, Muslims are expected to gather at the mosque to pray together, even when _____________ is a regular workday. The men stand in rows and are led in prayer, followed by a sermon based on a portion of the Quran. Women are not obliged to attend _____________ prayers, and in most Muslim cultures they do not, but when they do, they are seated in the back or in a side room. Their presence in the front is considered immodest owing to the necessity of performing prostrations.

Front 59

zakat

Back 59

The third pillar of Islam is _____________, or charity. All Muslims who are able are supposed to give a portion of their income to the poor. In some countries, this is voluntary; in others it is levied in the form of a tax (usually 2-1/2% of one's income). In any case, _____________ is not truly regarded as voluntary: it is seen as a debt. Anyone who has been blessed with wealth is effectively holding it in trust from God, and is obliged to share it with those less fortunate.

Front 60

Ramadan

Back 60

All Muslims are supposed to fast during daylight hours in the month of _____________, the month when Muhammad received his first revelation from God. Fasting is said to serve many purposes for the faithful. It provides a time for spiritual focus and reflection and for atonement to God for past sins. It is also intended to raise the entire community's sympathy for the poor and hungry, encouraging a properly Muslim attitude toward social welfare.

Front 61

granted exemptions

Back 61

During the month of Ramadan, Muslims are supposed to abstain from food, water, sex, and smoking from dawn to dusk. Those who are pregnant, ill, or traveling are _____________, but everyone else is expected to rise before the sun to eat and then to avoid food and water until dusk when the breakfast (“break fast") meal is served. Many Muslim communities believe there are also health benefits associated with the Ramadan fast.

Front 62

Night of Power

Back 62

Other religious practices apart from fasting are a part of the Ramadan celebration. There are often public recitations of the Quran, and some take it upon themselves to recite the entire Quran during the month of Ramadan, reading 1/30th of the text each night. The 27th day of Ramadan is the "_____________." It marks Muhammad's first revelation. Ramadan then concludes with a three-day celebration called Eid al-Fitr that includes feasting, exchanging gifts, and visiting with family members.

Front 63

winter; summer

Back 63

The Islamic calendar consists of twelve months of equal length, each representing a complete cycle of the moon. Twelve cycles of the moon totals 354 days, which falls short of a solar year (365 days). Because the Islamic calendar is not adjusted to fit the solar year, its months move through the various seasons of the year. This means that in countries far from the equator, Ramadan sometimes falls in _____________ when the days are short, but at other times falls in the _____________ when the days are very long.

Front 64

pilgrimage to Mecca

Back 64

The fifth pillar of Islam is _____________, a journey that all Muslims who can afford to do so are encouraged to make at least once in their lifetime. The pilgrimage is undertaken in the twelfth month, the month of hajj. Each year more than two million pilgrims come to Saudi Arabia to make their pilgrimage. Men dress in two white sheets without seams. There is no specially mandated dress for women, but they customarily wear white as well.

Front 65

zamzam

Back 65

The first stop on the pilgrimage is the Grand Mosque in Mecca where the Kaaba has been housed since pre-Islamic times. The meteorite itself, covered with a cloth, sits in a large black cube in the center of the courtyard. Pilgrims walk around the Kaaba seven times counter-clockwise. Following the visit to the Kaaba, pilgrims proceed outside to the _____________, the well that God revealed to Hagar when she was wandering in the desert. It is customary to pray all night following the first day of pilgrimage.

Front 66

the Plain of Arafat

Back 66

After visiting the Grand mosque in Mecca, pilgrims travel to the Plain of Arafat where Muhammad preached his final sermon before dying. Pilgrims are expected to stand from noon until sunset as a means of repenting of their sins and those of all Muslims. Sermons are preached during this time. That night, pilgrims sleep in tents on _____________.

Front 67

the Feast of Sacrifice

Back 67

After sleeping outdoors on the Plain of Arafat, the following day is celebrated as Id al-Adha, _____________. Pilgrims sacrifice animals in commemoration of God's allowing Abraham to substitute a ram to be sacrificed in place of his son Ismail (Ishmael). Some of the meat is consumed, but according to Muslim tradition, the bulk of it is supposed to be distributed to the poor. Muslims around the world, not just those on pilgrimage, celebrate Id al-Adha.

Front 68

7

Back 68

At the conclusion of the Feast of Sacrifice, pilgrims usually return to Mecca and again walk around the Kaaba _____________ times. Because many pilgrims have come from distant lands and only expect to visit Islam's holy land once, they frequently stay on in Saudi Arabia to visit Muhammad's tomb in Medina. Muslims can visit Mecca at any time of the year, but it will only count as the fulfillment of their obligation to make pilgrimage if it is undertaken during the month of Hajj.

Front 69

Struggle

Back 69

_____________, or jihad, is often described as the "sixth pillar of Islam," though this is strictly unofficial. Jihad, the obligation to struggle and exert oneself to follow God's laws and lead a good life, is discussed in the Quran. Jihad is usually translated into English as "holy war," but this is only one meaning of the term. Muhammad referred to holy war as the "lesser jihad," and to the struggle to submit the self to God as the "greater jihad."

Front 70

military conquest

Back 70

Islam was from the beginning linked with _____________. The expansion of the Muslim religion and the Arab empire occurred simultaneously. Some of these early wars were regarded as holy wars, permitted by Allah for the purpose of subduing the unbelievers. However, Muslim law explicitly limits aggressive warfare. As it says in the Quran, "Fight for the sake of Allah those that fight against you, but do not attack them first. Allah does not love the aggressors” (Sura 2:190).

Front 71

lawful; forbidden

Back 71

Islam divides foods into two categories: In those that are halal, _____________, and haram, _____________. Like the laws of kashrut in Judaism, laws pertaining to meat-eating in Islam have mainly to do with the way the animal is slaughtered. It is to be as quick and painless as possible, with thanks being given to Allah. Some animals are always haram, particularly pigs, who are regarded as unclean. Islam also prohibits alcoholic beverages.

Front 72

no mention

Back 72

Like other religions, Islam marks major events in the lives of believers with religious ceremonies. Muslim men are expected to be circumcised in imitation of the Prophet, though there is _____________ of circumcision in the Quran. Muslims occasionally practice female circumcision, though this is related more to local cultural practices, particularly in Africa, than to any teaching of Islam. Female circumcision may vary from a symbolic nick in the hood of the clitoris to full excision of the external genitalia.

Front 73

wedding

Back 73

A _____________ is an important event in the life of a Muslim, since marriage is both a religious duty and a social obligation in most Muslim societies. Blessings from the Quran are generally recited over the couple, and the person who officiates preaches a sermon about marriage. Beyond that, wedding customs are extremely variable in Islam, as they are drawn more from local practices than from any prescribed format.

Front 74

buried

Back 74

Death is treated simply in Islam. The corpse is cleansed and wrapped in a plain white shroud (ideally, the same white sheet that the person wore on their pilgrimage to Mecca). Muslims are _____________, not cremated, and they are placed in the ground with their heads facing Mecca. Prayers from the Quran are recited at their graveside. Muhammad taught that grief should not be excessive, and that mourners should take comfort in Allah's divine plan.

Front 75

Testimony, prayer, charity, fasting, pilgrimage

Back 75

What are the five pillars of Islam?

Front 76

There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger.

Back 76

What is the shahadah?

Front 77

Ali

Back 77

The first of Muhammad's blood relations to become khalif was...

Front 78

conquest

Back 78

Islam spread rapidly during Muhammad's life, and even more quickly afterwards. Within ten years of Muhammad's death, Arab armies had conquered significant portions of the Byzantine and Persian empires, including Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Persia, and Egypt. Within one hundred years, the Islamic empire extended from Morocco and Spain in the west to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. Once Islam brought together the Arab tribes, they lessened their infighting and turned their energies outward toward _____________.

Front 79

pay a tax

Back 79

The armies of Islam encountered resistance as they spread, but in many cases this resistance was milder than might be expected. Most of the peoples taken over by the growing empire were accustomed to living under imperial rule. The Muslim authorities offered them a better deal than many previous rulers: they could convert and become full citizens; they could retain their own religious practices and law courts, but _____________; or they could face armed opposition. Many chose one of the first two options.

Front 80

God's favor

Back 80

This early expansion of Islam was both a religious and a political process. The conquerors saw themselves creating a truly Muslim empire informed by submission to God and the rule of Islamic law. Though everyone under imperial control did not immediately convert to Islam, the possibility still existed that they would, and, in the meantime, the empire itself would be Muslim. Like Jews and Christians before them, Muslims interpreted their military successes as a sign of _____________.

Front 81

Muhammad did not have any living sons and had not named a successor

Back 81

The first challenge faced by the Muslim community after Muhammad's death was not enemy armies, however. It was a crisis in leadership precipitated by the fact that __________________________. Muhammad's wife Aisha, who was with him when he died, insisted that Muhammad never took a position on who should lead the growing religious and political community after his death.

Front 82

Abu Bakr

Back 82

The companions and followers that Muhammad left behind discussed how to best determine leadership for the Muslim community. They agreed to select a caliph, or leader, on the basis of competence and religious virtue. They sought a strong leader and good Muslim. The first man selected as caliph was _____________, one of Muhammad's best friends and first disciples, and also the father of Muhammad's wife Aisha.

Front 83

the rightly-guided caliphs

Back 83

Abu Bakr died only two years after Muhammad, and leadership of the Muslim community passed in turn to Umar, Uthman, and Ali, who were also companions of Muhammad's during his lifetime. Together these four are referred to as "_____________." Though there was much political intrigue during this period (Umar, Uthman, and Ali were all assassinated) the empire flourished. Most Muslims look back on these caliphs as good leaders who stuck closely to the ideals of Islam.

Front 84

Shia and Sunni

Back 84

If one looks at what happened after the death of the last “rightly-guided caliph," it is easier to understand why the earlier caliphs are regarded comparatively highly. After Ali's death there was fierce contention for the leadership of Islam that resulted in many deaths and eventually in the first, and still the only, major split in Islam: that between _____________ Islam.

Front 85

first male descendants

Back 85

The last of the rightly-guided caliphs, Ali, had a special link to the Prophet that the earlier caliphs lacked. Ali was a cousin of Muhammad's, and had been married to Muhammad's daughter Fatima. Ali's sons were Muhammad's _____________. Some Muslims believed that Ali should have become caliph immediately after Muhammad's death, because of his blood and family links to the Prophet, and that later caliphs should be Ali's descendants.

Front 86

Muawiyah

Back 86

Ali's caliphate was brief and dramatic. A coalition led by Aisha, Muhammad's widow, condemned Ali for having failed to prosecute the assassins of the previous caliph, Uthman. Meanwhile, _____________, a relative of Uthman's and the governor of Syria, mounted another challenge to Als's reign. Ali agreed to arbitration to settle the dispute between himself and _____________. Some of Ali's followers were so enraged at Ali's willingness to negotiate with _____________ that they had him killed.

Front 87

Ali's enemy and the governor of Syria

Back 87

In 661 CE, with the death of Ali, Muawiyah, _____________, became caliph. He handed the office down to his descendants for nearly one hundred years, until 750 CE. This was the Umayyad Dynasty. Under the Umayyad caliphs, Islam spread throughout northern Africa and into Spain, and eastward to the Indian subcontinent, overtaking the Persian Empire and much of the Byzantine Empire as well.

Front 88

Hassan

Back 88

Most Muslims recognized the Umayyads as the legitimate caliphs of the Islamic Empire, but other Muslims were unwilling to accept the defeat of Ali, who they regarded as the true heir to Muhammad's line of civil and religious leadership. In a compromise move, Ali's son _____________ agreed to the Umayyad caliphate so long as he, _____________, was regarded as the imam, or religious leader, of Islam. The Umayyad caliph still regarded _____________ as a threat, however, and arranged to have him poisoned.

Front 89

Husayn

Back 89

Hassan's brother, _____________, succeeded him as imam. Muslims loyal to Ali appealed to _____________ to fight the Umayyad caliph, not only because he was not a descendant of Muhammad, but also because he was regarded as a corrupt, un-Islamic ruler. _____________ traveled with his family and followers from Mecca to Karbala, in present-day Iraq. There he encountered the army of the Umayyad caliph, which had been charged with making _____________ swear his allegiance to the Umayyad caliph.

Front 90

Shia

Back 90

The Umayyad army pursued Husayn's group and cut off their access to water. When Husayn rode forward with his infant son to beg for water, he and all his followers were slaughtered. Husayn was decapitated, and his head was taken to Damascus. Those who remained loyal to Ali, and to his sons Hassan and Husayn, split from the main line of Islam, what is now known as Sunni Islam, and formed their own branch of Islam: _____________.

Front 91

imam

Back 91

Shia Muslims developed a different model of leadership from that which prevailed in Sunni Islam. Instead of investing military and political authority in a caliph, selected for his leadership qualities, Shia Muslims invested religious authority in an _____________, a descendant of the Prophet (Muhammad) who was seen as divinely inspired.

Front 92

how many legitimate imams each group recognizes following Husayn

Back 92

Having split from mainstream Islam, Shia Muslims subdivided further, mostly over disputes regarding the proper line of succession after Husayn. The major divisions of Shia Islam today are the Zaydis, or "Fivers"; the Ismailis, or “Seveners"; and the Imamis, or "Twelvers." The numbers signify _____________.

Front 93

occultation

Back 93

All Shia Muslims believe that the line of imams, divinely inspired descendants of Muhammad, has ended, whether with the fifth, seventh, or twelfth imam. However, Shia Muslims say that the last imam did not die, but went into "_____________": that is, he is in seclusion. He will one day return as the Mahdi, or "expected one," restoring the proper line of succession and returning all of Islam to its pure state.

Front 94

Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, and especially in Iran (which is the only Shia Muslim state in existence today)

Back 94

Today, Shia Muslims comprise approximately twelve percent of the total Muslim world population. Shia Muslims can be found around the world, but are concentrated in __________________________. Shia Muslims still ritually mourn the death of Husayn each year. Over the centuries, Shia and Sunni Islam have developed additional differences in belief and practice beyond their initial dispute over questions of leadership.

Front 95

Abbasids

Back 95

Disrespect for the Umayyad caliphs was not limited to Shia Muslims. Many questioned what they saw as the dissolute lifestyle of the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus, and others cited discrimination against non-Arab Muslims. In 750 CE, a revolt against Umayyad rule championing a return to an earlier, purer form of Islam won a military victory. The new line of caliphs, known as the _____________ (who were descended from Muhammad's uncle), moved the capital to Baghdad and instituted a dynasty that was to stay in place until 1258 CE.

Front 96

Umayyad

Back 96

It was during the reign of the Abbasids that sharia, Islamic law, developed and thrived. Since the dynasty they displaced, the _____________, had been condemned as un-Islamic, the Abbasids were intent on establishing themselves as patrons of Islamic law. Under their leadership, a class of religious leaders known as the ulama came into being. The ulama were distinguished by their learning and scholarship, being conversant in the Quran and the Hadith, as well as Islamic legal traditions.

Front 97

1258 CE

Back 97

Though an Abbasid caliph remained on the throne in Baghdad until _____________, Persian and Turkish military dynasties took over much of the real power of the Empire beginning in the tenth century. The Abbasid dynasty finally fell decisively in _____________, when the Mongols of Central Asia under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson, Hulegu, invaded Baghdad.

Front 98

Mughal Empire

Back 98

Although the sitting caliph was executed by the Mongols, Islamic rule was quickly restored throughout the empire in the form of local sultanates. What had been the Islamic Empire became many Islamic empires. Of these, three were the largest and most significant: the Ottoman Empire, based in Turkey; the Safavid Empire, based in Iran; and the _____________, based in India.

Front 99

Constantinople

Back 99

Once freed by the collapse of the Abbasid dynasty to pursue conquest on their own, the Ottoman Turks were highly successful. In 1453 CE, they captured _____________, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and renamed it Istanbul. From there, the Ottomans conquered most of the Middle East and Northern Africa, as well as much of southern Europe, including Greece and the Balkans. Their expansion was not halted until they reached Vienna, where European armies turned them back.

Front 100

Ottoman Empire

Back 100

With Istanbul as its capital, the _____________ established itself as a cultural center that was both European and Asian in orientation and influence. Like other Islamic empires before it, the _____________ protected non-Muslim communities in its midst. Non-Muslims were required to pay taxes to the Empire, but were left largely free to run their own communities without governmental interference.

Front 101

Safavid Empire

Back 101

The Ottoman Empire effectively oversaw Islam in the West, but, farther east, other Islamic empires thrived. The _____________, based in Isfahan in Iran, took power in 1501, becoming the first officially Shia empire. The Safavids saw themselves as the true Muslims. The first ruler of the _____________, Ismail, declared that he was a descendant of the earlier imams. He claimed both religious and political power, further refining a distinctively Shia approach to Islam.

Front 102

Aurangzeb

Back 102

The Mughal Empire in India began in 1526 CE around the same time the Safavid Empire began. Successive leaders instituted radically different policies. For example, the pioneering emperor Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, sought to encompass the Hindu majority in India within a larger religious vision that saw all religions as recognizing similar truths. But the later emperor _____________ (1658-1707) reinstated the authority of the ulama, imposed heavy taxes on non-Muslims, and even destroyed Hindu temples.

Front 103

Western imperialism

Back 103

After the fall of the Abbasid Dynasty in Baghdad in 1258, the separate empires of the Islamic world had their differences, but they still identified themselves and each other as Muslim. The Islamic empires gradually disintegrated under the pressure of _____________. With the Industrial Revolution and the growth of their naval power, European countries were able to amass sufficient military and economic strength to overshadow the Islamic empires.

Front 104

British and French authorities

Back 104

By the eighteenth century, the Safavid Empire fell and the Mughal Empire was reduced to a shell of its former self under occupation by British imperial rulers in India. The Ottoman Empire lasted longer, into the twentieth century, but its alliance with Germany during World War I led to its eventual downfall. After the war, Ottoman territory was carved up and taken over by _____________. By the 1920s, only Turkey, Persia, and Afghanistan remained as self-governing Muslim states, as Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf States struggled to be born.

Front 105

Sufism

Back 105

From the beginning of Islam, there were those in the Muslim community who sought a deeper, richer, and closer communion with God than they felt was possible through the lifestyle and religious practices prescribed for all Muslims. The development of this segment of the Muslim community flowered into the mystical movement known as _____________. As in Islam generally, the focus in Sufism is primarily on Allah, and secondarily on Muhammad, who for Sufis is not only the Prophet of God, but a crucial, continuing link between humans and God.

Front 106

fana

Back 106

It seems likely that throughout the history of Islam, Sufism has been influenced by mystical traditions in Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism. In Sufi thought, the primary goal of the individual is _____________, or extinction of the self within God: the achievement of total union with the divine. This is similar to Hindu and Buddhist ideals of liberation and enlightenment. The organization of Sufi brotherhoods is very similar to that of Christian monastic orders.

Front 107

Rabia al-Adawiyya

Back 107

One of the earliest Sufis was a woman named _____________. She was born in Basra in Iraq in the eighth century CE. She was famed as a beautiful woman who rejected all marriage offers so as to focus herself solely on God. Like other Sufis, _____________ practiced fasting and other ascetic means to commune with God, but she also experienced union with God as devotional ecstasy, setting a pattern that was to continue throughout the history of Sufism.

Front 108

Reality

Back 108

Rabia wrote many poems about her spiritual longings. This one, "_____________," captures the common mystical conviction that God can be experienced, but not described:In love, nothing exists between heart and heart.Speech is born out of longing,True description from the real taste.The one who tastes, knows;the one who explains, lies.How can you describe the true form of SomethingIn whose presence you are blotted out?And in whose being you still exist?And who lives as a sign for your journey?

Front 109

an all-consuming relationship with God

Back 109

Sufism has historically held a controversial place within Islam. Islam, like Judaism, makes no special provision for those seeking _____________. The early vision of Islam did not offer any description of monastic orders or ashrams. From the beginning, Sufis downplayed the importance of Muslim family and community life in preference to direct experience of God. They were bound to come into conflict with mainstream Islam, which has always viewed family and community as the very heart of Islam.

Front 110

al-Hallaj

Back 110

Tensions between Sufism and mainstream Islam (embodied in the ulama, or religious leaders) led to periodic persecution of Sufis. In one famous case, a tenth-century Sufi mystic named _____________, upon experiencing the presence of God within himself, announced to all who would hear, "I am the Truth." In response, the Muslim religious establishment accused al-Hallaj of blasphemy, and had him publicly scourged and crucified. Even today, there are some Muslims who would claim that Sufis are not really Muslim at all.

Front 111

Sufi brotherhoods

Back 111

_____________ have typically been formed around spiritual leaders, or shaykhs, who traced lines of spiritual master/disciple relationships back to Muhammad. Particularly famous shaykhs were treated as saints after their deaths. Their tombs became shrines to which later Muslims would make pilgrimage to beseech these saints for favors such as fertility or financial success.

Front 112

more orthodox forms of Islam

Back 112

In Islam's early centuries, ideas of Sufi sainthood were at odds with _____________, which worried that reverence for saints would dilute Islam's radical monotheism. Likewise, the tendency of some Sufi orders to feel they could dispense with ordinary religious requirements for Muslims (such as praying five times a day) in their more intense quest for God threatened the authority of the ulama, and even more, of the Quran itself.

Front 113

Al-Ghazali

Back 113

The strain between Sufism and orthodox Islam might have led to a decisive split within Islam, if it were not for the critical work of Abu Hamid _______, a religious scholar living in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. _____________ was born in Iran and settled in Baghdad, where he became a prominent critic of any Islamic philosophy that threatened to over-rationalize Islamic faith or minimize the importance of the Quran.

Front 114

Islamic law and theology

Back 114

Al-Ghazali was clearly positioned with those who would be the severest critics of Sufism. Yet al-Ghazali developed an interest in Sufism. He traveled to Syria where he studied and practiced Sufism. Without losing his previously established credibility as an orthodox religious scholar, al-Ghazali embraced Sufism. He continued to recognize the central role of _____________, while making space within Islam for the ecstatic devotion to God that characterized Sufism.

Front 115

poverty and celibacy

Back 115

Ascetic practices such as fasting, celibacy, and keeping silent have traditionally been prescribed by many Sufi orders. Others have emphasized asceticism less, seeing _____________ as unnecessary to the quest for God. Sufi meditation and breathing exercises are prescribed to still the mind and bring the practitioner's focus to God. One traditional Sufi practice is the recitation of God's name, Allah, over and over again for hours at a time.

Front 116

most beautiful names

Back 116

Muslims have traditionally counted ninety-nine different titles given to God in the Quran. These are known as the "_____________.” Sufi mystics sometimes recite this list of attributes or names repeatedly, counting them on prayer beads. Sufi practitioners sing additional hymns of praise, addressing not only Allah, but also Muhammad and historically important Muslim figures like Ali or Fatima.

Front 117

dance

Back 117

As within many other religions, Islam's Sufi orders have relied on _____________ as means of entering into an ecstatic state of devotion to God. Forms of Sufi dance have been diverse, but by far the most famous form of Sufi dance is that of the so-called "whirling dervishes” of Turkey. First developed in the Mevlevi Sufi order, the dance of the whirling dervishes is said to imitate the solar system. Spinning rapidly in place, the dervishes circle around the shaykh, who, like the sun, is the still point in the center of the dance.

Front 118

Jalal al-Din Rumi

Back 118

The founder of the Mevlevi order was a famous Persian Sufi master, _____________. Rumi was born in the early thirteenth century in what is now Afghanistan. From there he traveled with his family to the Konya Plain in Turkey where he ultimately settled. Rumi wrote thousands of lines of verse probing questions of Islamic philosophy, celebrating the beauties of love and the natural world, and glorying in his devotion to God.

Front 119

ideal faith

Back 119

From the time the Prophet established himself in Medina, Islam has regarded the individual, family, community, and state as integrally linked. All these are seen as properly belonging to the sphere of Islam. Just as individuals are instructed to submit to the will of God, so is the state. The Quran, held by Muslims to be the revealed word of God, speaks to rulers and judges as well as to the ordinary believer, prescribing an ideal state just as it prescribes an _____________.

Front 120

theocracy

Back 120

This intimate relationship between religion and state is called _____________. Many religions have at one time or another championed the theocratic ideal. For example, the Byzantine (Orthodox Christian) Empire was a political unit, but also a religious one. Likewise, ancient Israel was not only a home to practicing Jews, but a self-consciously Jewish nation in which governmental policy was adopted as it was seen to reflect God's will (unlike the state of Israel today, which is officially secular).

Front 121

Sharia

Back 121

For most of the history of Islam, Muslimshave lived in states or empires that saw themselves as Islamic. Naturally, complaints that leaders or states were insufficiently Islamic have persisted from the time of the rightly guided caliphs (three of whom Shia Muslims regarded as "usurpers"). But for the most part, there has been a conviction among Muslims that the state should be Islamic, and follow the _____________, or Islamic law.

Front 122

colonial rulers

Back 122

Given Islam's historical commitment to a theocratic ("God-centered”) state, it is not surprising that the past few centuries have provoked an enormous crisis in Islam. Most formerly Islamic countries were conquered by European _____________, who, even if they treated Islam with respect, did not see Islam (or any other religion) as an acceptable or appropriate source for state policy.

Front 123

the abode of warfare

Back 123

Traditionally, Islam has distinguished between dar al-Islam (the abode of Islam) and dar al-harb (literally, "_____________," but in practice, the non-Islamic world). In early times, Muslims were encouraged to live within the house of Islam (that is, in Islamic countries) so that their work and lives would automatically contribute to the up-building of Islam. Increasingly though, Muslims have faced the prospect of living in non-Islamic countries, or even developing nations of their own that are secular rather than Islamic.

Front 124

secular governments

Back 124

Some Muslims today favor _____________ for their countries. This does not necessarily mean that they are secular (non-religious) themselves. They simply believe that they and their nations will profit by instituting a separation between religion and state such as that which exists in the United States. However, there is an enormous weight of Islamic history and tradition that keeps many Muslims working toward governments that are in some way Muslim.

Front 125

modern and Islamic

Back 125

In the early decades of the twentieth century, virtually the entire Islamic world was governed by non-Islamic, Western powers. However, by the end of the twentieth century, most Muslim areas were returned to some form of self-rule. In response to this situation, the Islamic world has spent recent decades experimenting with various ways of reinterpreting the theocratic ideal to build states that are both _____________.

Front 126

Islamic adaptation

Back 126

Post-World War I Turkey, on the one hand, and post-revolutionary Iran on the other can most easily represent the far ends of the spectrum of _____________. As the twentieth century dawned, Turkey was the seat of the Ottoman Empire. The sultan ruled from Istanbul, and though the empire had shrunk from its most expansive state, its basic structure as an Islamic empire was still in place.

Front 127

mandates

Back 127

During the First World War, the Ottoman 05PATIC Empire aligned itself with Germany. When Germany ultimately lost the war, most parts of the Ottoman Empire were turned over to European control. Theoretically, the idea was that the European powers would control these Middle Eastern territories, called _____________, until such time as they could become self-governing. The Middle East in general, including Turkey, was parceled out to British, American, French, and Italian forces.

Front 128

Turkey

Back 128

Seeing _____________ weakened, Greece invaded, hoping to reconquer portions of the former Byzantine Empire that had been under Ottoman control for nearly six hundred years. An Ottoman military leader, Mustafa Kemal, organized a resistance to Greece and to all the various occupying powers in _____________, and eventually won Turkish independence in 1922. Then, in a bold move, Kemal sent the caliph into exile, declared the Ottoman Empire dissolved, and instituted a secular government in _____________.

Front 129

Arabic script

Back 129

The pace and sweep of Kemal's reforms were dramatic. In a little over a decade, Kemal outlawed the wearing of the traditional Turkish fez for men and the headcovering for women; replaced Sharia with a secular justice system; banned any Islamic sect (Sufi or otherwise) that threatened Turkey's secular government; and adopted the Latin alphabet for the Turkish language (which had formerly been written in _____________).

Front 130

Father of the Turks

Back 130

Kemal and his "Young Turks" were hostile to many Christian populations in Turkey, though this seems to have been for ethnic reasons as much as religious ones. As elected President of the new Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal insisted on the equality of women and mandated public education for girls as well as boys. He also passed legislation requiring surnames. He himself was given the surname "Ataturk," meaning "_____________."

Front 131

felt this was the only way they could protect themselves from continued incursions by the European powers

Back 131

By the mid-twentieth century, Turkey was well-established as a secular state with a dominantly Muslim population that was free to practice its religion in private. Reportedly, Ataturk felt driven to make these sweeping changes because he (and the many Turks who supported him) _____________.

Front 132

Iran

Back 132

As Muslim territories were returned to self-rule throughout the twentieth century, none was as enthusiastically committed to the path of secularization andWesternization as Turkey was. However, other Muslim countries likewise sought to make alliances in the new world order that would give them the political and material advantages associated with the West. One such country was _____________ under the leadership of Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, and earlier, his father.

Front 133

Shah

Back 133

Like Ataturk, the _____________ wished to modernize his country, and he instituted reforms similar to those that had been successfully launched in Turkey. The key difference was that the _____________ did not have popular opinion behind him. He was a non-elected official who suppressed political dissent and made decisions by fiat. Iranians across the political spectrum objected to the rule of the _____________. These dissidents found common ground with one another in their resistance to what they saw as the indiscriminate westernization of Iran.

Front 134

Iranian revolution

Back 134

In 1979, the Shah was ousted by a grass roots _____________. It was quickly evident that those who had worked effectively together to end the Shah's reign were not in agreement about the government that should be instituted in its place. Some envisioned a democratic socialist government striving to promote traditional Islamic values, while others imagined a more literal form of theocracy, in which religious leaders ruled the state.

Front 135

Ayatollah Khomeini

Back 135

After a brief struggle following the ousting of the Shah of Iran, those pushing for a theocratic state won the day. An important religious leader, the _____________, became the principal spokesperson for the new Islamic Republic. Khomeini had been in exile in France throughout the 1960s and 1970s, but returned after the Revolution to public acclaim. In short order, dissent was prohibited and punished; modest dress was required for both sexes, but particularly for women; and alcohol and Western music were banned.

Front 136

truly Islamic

Back 136

Other Islamic states have positioned themselves somewhere on the spectrum between the secular, westernized republic of Turkey, and the religiously-ruled nation of Iran. Most Muslim states have some form of democratic or parliamentary representation, but preserve the authority of the Sharia, or Islamic law, at least in the case of family law. The degree to which Islamic states are "_____________" is hotly contested across the Islamic world.

Front 137

Islam strategically to resist Western hegemony and to mobilize support for their governments among the more traditional segments of their populations

Back 137

Amidst the diversity in the Islamic world, one trend in the latter half of the twentieth century has been for Islamic states to use _____________. For example, after the fall of the Egyptian monarchy, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser moved the country in a secular direction, focusing on Arab, rather than Muslim, unity. Later though, in response to internal dissent, Nasser increasingly used Islamic symbols and rhetoric to justify state practices.

Front 138

Islamic fundamentalism

Back 138

Leaders throughout the Islamic world have had to respond to grass roots Islamic revivalist movements. Often termed "_____________" by those in the West, these movements are actually quite different from the Christian fundamentalism that gave rise to the name. Islamic revivalists are not primarily scriptural literalists, as Christian fundamentalists are. Instead, they seek to restore Islam to its central place in individual, community, and national life-the place they feel it held throughout most of the history of Islam.

Front 139

revivalism

Back 139

In Islamic _____________, Muslims see hope for restoring their sense of identity, so fractured by incursions from Western colonial powers over the past few centuries. Most hope to establish the Islamic integrity of their countries without risking war against non-Islamic countries. Unfortunately, the Islamic world has felt so embattled as a result of the destruction of its earlier empires that there has been significant popular support for a suspicious and hostile attitude toward the West.

Front 140

the bloody attacks of the Christian Crusaders

Back 140

The state of Israel has been a particularly sore point for contemporary Muslims because for many it recalls _____________ on the Middle East a thousand years ago. Although Israel is a Jewish state, many of whose inhabitants have lived in the Middle East for many centuries, it is often seen as an outpost of Western colonial power: a state sponsored by Western governments to provide them with a military presence in the Middle East.

Front 141

Islamic terrorism

Back 141

The military defeats experienced by Arab countries at the hands of Israel have been particularly demoralizing, and have contributed to the rise of _____________. Israel is not the only target of _______________; increasingly America and American outposts are also targeted. Islamic terrorist activity is also aimed at competing Muslim groups and governments. Though by no means excusable, Islamic terrorism has to be understood against the backdrop of despair and powerlessness felt by many Muslims in the Middle East.

Front 142

miniscule proportion

Back 142

Islamic terrorism is indeed rooted in the religion of Islam. Many of those who take violent action are convinced they are following the religiously appropriate path, the Muslim ideal of jihad, in fighting against the secular, materialistic governments of the West. Islamic terrorists are, however, a _____________ of the world population of Muslims. To assume that they speak accurately for Islam's vision and values would be as mistaken as equating the Branch Davidians with mainstream Christianity.

Front 143

adapt to the modern world

Back 143

Almost all Muslims, from every part of the world, are united in their belief that Islam must and should _____________, at least in some ways. What is at issue is how much change Islam can endure and still remain truly Islam. For many Muslims, the bottom line is Sharia: Islamic law. Islam can expand to include science and technology, and even experiment with different forms of government, so long as it respects traditional Islamic law.

Front 144

functional separation between religion and state

Back 144

In spite of Islam's theocratic ideal, there is precedent for a _____________. For many centuries, the caliphs served as religious figureheads, the ulama protected Islamic law, and other public figures, from military generals to ministers of state, managed economic and political affairs. Some Muslims recall this, and perceive significant freedom for innovation in Islamic government so long as Sharia is kept inviolate.

Front 145

the gates of itjihad

Back 145

Other Muslims find room for reform by arguing that the process by which Sharia originally came to be should continue in the present day. Sharia initially developed through application and interpretation of the Quran, the Hadith, community consensus, and the use of reason by the ulama, or religious leaders. But after a few centuries, it was said that “_____________” (interpretation of the law) “were shut.” Most religious leaders believed that the important decisions had already been made, and should only be applied over and over again in the future.

Front 146

critical reflection, experimentation, and resurgence

Back 146

Some Muslim reformers feel it is time to look back to the basic sources (to the Quran, principally, and secondarily to the Hadith) to determine the form Sharia should take in the future. They stress that not only the ulama, but all Muslims, must take a role in determining the future of Islam and Islamic law. However these matters are ultimately resolved, it is clear that Islam is now experiencing an almost unprecedented period of _____________.

Front 147

20% of the world population of Muslims

Back 147

There is a common misconception among outsiders that Muslims are all Arabs, and that Arabs are all Muslim. This is far from the truth. Arabs (those living in the Middle East and Northern Africa, speaking Arabic as their native tongue) are less than _____________ (roughly 200 million out of an estimated total of 1.2 billion). Also, there are many non-Muslim Arabs, including large communities of Christians that have lived in the Middle East and Northern Africa from the time of the early church.

Front 148

65 million Muslims

Back 148

There are roughly _____________ living in Iran (the area historically known as Persia). Most Muslims in Iran are Shia, and almost all Iranians are Muslims. For long stretches of the Common Era, Persia was home to Jewish and Christian minorities, but most of these communities relocated elsewhere during the twentieth century. Persia also gave birth to the Ba'hai religion, an offshoot of Shia Islam that is regarded by Muslims as heretical. Since the Iranian Revolution, Baha'i has been declared illegal in Iran.

Front 149

Indian subcontinent

Back 149

The _____________ is home to two predominantly Muslim nations, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In addition, there are significant Muslim minorities within the secular democratic state of India, bringing the estimated total number of Muslims on the Indian subcontinent to 350 million. Some Indians became Muslims in earlier centuries as a result of Sufi missionary work; others converted during the time of the Mughal Empire.

Front 150

Indonesia

Back 150

The country that is home to the single largest population of Muslims in the world today is _____________, with approximately 180 million Muslims (about 90% of the entire population). Indonesia was initially familiarized with Islam through the work of Arab traders and Sufi missionaries. By the 15th century, Islam was a significant presence in the region. Although Islam is the dominant religion in Indonesia today, inhabitants often mix Islam with the practice of Hinduism and earlier oral religions.

Front 151

restricted

Back 151

Islam took root in southern China many centuries ago. However, it is difficult to estimate how many Muslims remain in China today. Since the Communist Revolution, the practice of religion has been _____________ in China. Scholars give a wide range for the possible number of Muslims in China today, anywhere between 30 and 100 million.

Front 152

China

Back 152

Islam took root in southern _____________ many centuries ago. However, it is difficult to estimate how many Muslims remain in _____________ today. Since the Communist Revolution, the practice of religion has been restricted in _____________. Scholars give a wide range for the possible number of Muslims in ____________ today, anywhere between 30 and 100 million.

Front 153

the last two centuries

Back 153

Northern Africa was predominantly Muslim within a hundred years of Muhammad's life and has remained so since. The Sahara Desert acts as a natural geographic boundary between Northern Africa and what is usually termed sub-Saharan (south of the Sahara Desert) Africa. Parts of the east coast of Africa, just across the sea from Arabia, were opened to Islam very early on. Even before the hijra to Medina, some Muslims fled to Ethiopia for protection. But in most of the southern portion of Africa, the presence of Islam dates to _____________.

Front 154

native African religious traditions

Back 154

Along the west coast of Africa, which is accessible by sea and land routes, significant outposts of Islam were established within Islam's first five hundred years. For instance, by the twelfth century, Ghana was dominantly Muslim. Today though, Islam is growing rapidly throughout sub-Saharan Africa, where the total Muslim population is estimated to be around 100 million, a close second to its Christian population. In Africa, Islam, like Christianity, mingles with _______________.

Front 155

Europe

Back 155

Estimates of the Muslim population over the entire continent of _______________ are around 15 to 20 million, about equally divided between southeastern _______________ and western _______________. The Muslim communities in southeastern _______________ are mainly those that were left behind by the Ottoman Empire in Albania, Macedonia, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Recent wars in southeastern Europe have brought international attention to the plight of Muslims in that region.

Front 156

French population

Back 156

The Muslim population in Western Europe has grown rapidly during the twentieth century. Colonial and military ties between Europe and the Muslim world created lasting political and cultural alliances that brought unskilled laborers, students, and professionals from Muslim countries to Europe. Turkish workers settled in Germany; Muslims from French-controlled areas such as Lebanon and Algeria migrated to France. Today, ten percent of the _______________ is Muslim, including a growing number of converts to Islam.

Front 157

overtake Judaism

Back 157

Estimates of the Muslim population in the United States range from a low of four to five million to a high of ten to twelve million. Islam is now the third largest religion in America (after Christianity and Judaism). Many predict that by the mid-twenty-first century, Islam will _______________ to become the second-largest religion in America, if indeed it has not already

Front 158

5 and 20 percent

Back 158

Islam came to America with the first African slaves. It is now believed that somewhere between _______________ of African slaves were Muslim. (They were taken from areas of West Africa that had large Muslim populations.) Once in America, however, they were forced to abandon Muslim practices, and Islam in America died out. When Islam presented itself in the United States in the twentieth century, it did so in two vastly different guises: immigrants from Muslim countries, and the conversion of African-Americans to Islam.

Front 159

immigrants

Back 159

Most Muslims in America today are either Arab _______________, _______________ from South Asia, or African-Americans. Arab immigrants came to the United States beginning in the early twentieth century, mostly from Lebanon and Syria. Many recent _______________ are from Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. In addition, small populations of Muslims arrived from elsewhere in the Islamic world, including southeastern Europe, Southeast Asia, Iran, Turkey, and the Caribbean. The number of white and Hispanic converts is growing as well.

Front 160

ethnic communities

Back 160

When Christian immigrants came to America in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they tended to settle in _______________ that sponsored their own churches. For example, one town might have a German Reformed Church and a Dutch Reformed Church; an Italian Catholic parish and an Irish Catholic parish. Similarly, many Muslim mosques in America are connected to a specific ethnic community. Often these mosques function as community centers, offering not only a place for worship, but also for other social and cultural activities.

Front 161

ethnic enclaves

Back 161

It is mistaken to imagine though that Muslims in America are all sequestered in _______________. Increasingly, Muslims in America of many ethnicities have made common cause with one another, working to improve the image of Islam in America and to develop interracial and intercultural Muslim schools and social services. This dynamic blending of Islamic cultures is perhaps most evident in the growth and development of African-American Islam.

Front 162

racial heritage

Back 162

Islam began to be recaptured by African-Americans in the early twentieth century. In 1913, an African-American named Timothy Drew converted to Islam renamed himself Noble Drew Ali, and founded the Moorish Science Temple of America in Newark, New Jersey. He taught that African-Americans were Muslim by _______________. Though he seems to have had a poor understanding of the Quran, he instituted a number of Muslim-style practices including modest dress and the separation of the sexes.

Front 163

African-American Muslim leaders

Back 163

_______________ initially appealed to Islam from a position of black nationalism. Islam was to provide the cure for racial oppression, both internally, by providing African-Americans a stronger sense of self, and externally, by uniting the African-American community and leading their struggle. The first African-American Muslim movement to gain substantial strength in America was the Nation of Islam, founded by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad.

Front 164

W. D. Fard Muhammad

Back 164

_______________ came to prominence in Detroit during the 1930s, where he preached in ghettoes and on street corners. He taught that blacks should not consider themselves Americans, since they were of another nature altogether. He spoke of white Americans as "blue-eyed devils" and of Christianity as a false religion created by the white oppressors to serve their needs. Fard was gaining a following when he mysteriously disappeared in 1934.

Front 165

Elijah (Poole) Muhammad

Back 165

Fard was succeeded by _______________ as the leader of the Nation of Islam. Elijah Muhammad declared that Fard had actually been Allah (proving that God was black) and that he himself was the last messenger of God. Obviously, this was not orthodox Islam, which would shudder to name any human being as Allah or recognize another messenger after Muhammad. The Nation of Islam taught that the black race had originally ruled the entire world, and would rule again once the white usurpers were ousted.

Front 166

slave name

Back 166

The Nation of Islam's teachings about black superiority and self-sufficiency gained tremendous social visibility when they were adopted by a charismatic young man named Malcolm Little. Little was familiarized with Islam while in prison for theft. By the time he was released in 1952, he had been in contact with Elijah Muhammad and launched himself upon a career of preaching and teaching in the black community. He renamed himself Malcolm X, giving up his "_______________," Little, and showing his commitment to a new way of life.

Front 167

Black Muslims

Back 167

Malcolm X garnered a great deal of media attention and converted many African-Americans to the Nation of Islam. Across America, "_______________" provided a public alternative to the more moderate civil rights movement. Though officially subservient to Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm was vastly more popular, which created a strain in their relationship. Eventually, in 1964, Malcolm X broke with the Nation of Islam with the intention of founding his own Muslim organization.

Front 168

March of 1964

Back 168

In _______________, Malcolm went on hajj to Mecca. This was his first real exposure to mainstream Islam. Malcolm learned how to perform the five daily prayers and became familiar with the five pillars of Islam. While on hajj, Malcolm was so impressed with the apparent color-blindness of his fellow Muslims, that he gave up the black nationalist rhetoric of the Nation of Islam and became a Sunni Muslim, renaming himself El Hajj Malik El-Shabazz.

Front 169

Sunni Islam

Back 169

Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965, less than a year after his conversion to _______________. However, the synthesis of mainstream Islam and indigenous African-American Islamic movements, once popularized by Malcolm, was not to be turned back. Elijah Muhammad's sons, Wallace Dean and Akbar, studied Arabic and traditional Islam. In response, their father excommunicated them from the Nation of Islam. In spite of their disagreements, Elijah Muhammad named his son Wallace Dean Muhammad as his successor before he died in 1975.

Front 170

the American Muslim Mission

Back 170

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Wallace Dean Muhammad gradually led the Nation of Islam toward orthodox Sunni Islam. He abandoned the teachings that W. D. Fard was Allah and Elijah Muhammad his messenger; he enjoined the practice of the five pillars of Islam and encouraged his followers to study Arabic; and though he continued the Nation's message of black racial pride, he eliminated its anti-white rhetoric. In 1980, W. D. Muhammad renamed the organization, giving it the title of _______________.

Front 171

Louis Farrakhan

Back 171

The transition of the Nation of Islam to Sunni Islam did not go uncontested. In 1978, a group from the Nation of Islam led by _______________ broke with Wallace Dean Muhammad. Farrakhan kept the name Nation of Islam and retained its teachings about black nationalism. _______________ has since emerged as a national figure, organizing the Million Man March on Washington DC in 1995, and encouraging strong-and: traditional-family values in the black community. Though still outspoken about racial politics, _______________ has also moved closer to Sunni Islam over the years.

Front 172

Christianity's direct association with slavery in America

Back 172

From its beginnings as the only quasi-Islamic black nationalist movement in America, African-American Islam has now emerged as a dynamic new form of Islam. Increasingly, African-American Muslims are open to worshiping at the same mosques and in the same manner as immigrant Muslims. Undoubtedly, Islam is attractive to African-Americans in part because it shares important biblical figures familiar from Christianity, while it lacks _______________.

Front 173

anti-woman tradition

Back 173

In the West, it is common to regard Islam as an _______________. Images of women veiled from head to toe, walled into their family compounds, forbidden to work or go to school have often dominated media coverage of Islam. The truth about the status of women in Islam is significantly more complex. As Islam is a religion stretching from Indonesia to Morocco and beyond, it only stands to reason that the lives of Muslim women are nothing if not diverse, and very much inflected by local culture.

Front 174

respect

Back 174

As the Prophet, Muhammad is seen by Muslims to be the example in all things, so it is helpful to see how Muhammad himself related to women. Muhammad showed great _______________ and affection for his wives and daughters. His first wife, Khadijah, was older than Muhammad, was his employer, and arranged her marriage to Muhammad herself. Also, it was Khadijah who first encouraged Muhammad to believe that his revelations were authentic.

Front 175

protecting and caring for widows who had lost their husbands in the wars of expansion

Back 175

After Khadijah's death, Muhammad took other wives. Many of these marriages were undertaken with an eye toward _______________. Muhammad's favorite wife, Aisha, was entrusted with many matters pertaining to the early Muslim community. It is said that before his death, Muhammad told his companions they should take half of their knowledge about Islam from Aisha, and the other half from everyone else put together.

Front 176

faithfulness and submission to God

Back 176

Muhammad was close to his daughter Fatima. She was held up to the early Muslim community, female and male alike, as an example of _______________. A hadith reads: "Fatima is a part of me. Whoever upsets her has surely upset me, and whoever upsets me has upset Allah." Clearly, these are the words of a man who saw women as full persons, identifying with their needs and feelings as strongly as he did with those of other men.

Front 177

sons

Back 177

There can be no question that the status of women in early Arabia was not particularly elevated, however kind Muhammad may have been to the individual women in his life. Women were largely restricted to household duties and kept out of public roles, though there were significant exceptions (such as Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife and an independent businesswoman). Women were expected to give birth to _______________; failure to do so was considered a legitimate reason for a man to divorce his wife or take another, as in Jewish tradition.

Front 178

religious equality

Back 178

Although early Arabian society discriminated against women in various cultural, social, and political ways, the Quran is explicit about women's _______________. The religious duties prescribed for men are prescribed for women as well. Unlike the traditions of many other religions which debate whether or not women have souls or can attain enlightenment in a female body, the Quran says outright that women's souls are precisely equal in value to those of men.

Front 179

consent

Back 179

By the standards of the seventh century, the provisions in the Quran regarding the rights of women and girls are quite liberal. The Quran forbids female infanticide, which was a common practice in Arabia at the time; it requires that brides _______________ to their marriages rather than simply being passed on as property from father to husband; and it affirms inheritance rights, the right of women to own their own property, and the right of divorce for women.

Front 180

less-than-equal relationships

Back 180

The Quran was arguably a progressive document in its time. Still, it includes passages that stipulate _______________ between women and men. Men (other than the Prophet) may marry four wives; women may marry only one man. Daughters are guaranteed rights of inheritance, but they are less than those given to sons; in legal cases, the testimony of two women is equal to that of one man; and though both women and men may initiate divorce, it is a simpler process for men than women.

Front 181

in the home

Back 181

The Hadith literature is vast and sometimes contradictory. Certainly its view of women is mixed; it can be quoted to support both feminist and misogynist interpretations of Islam. The Hadith are fairly consistent in stating that women's primary obligations are _______________, and include giving sexual pleasure to her husband, obeying his finals wishes, and caring for their children.

Front 182

religious egalitarianism

Back 182

Other sayings of the Prophet support the _______________ set forth in the Quran. As one hadith reads: “All people are equal, as equal as the teeth of a comb. There is no claim of merit of an Arab over a non-Arab, or of a white over a black person, or of a male over a female. Only God-fearing people merit a preference with God."

Front 183

veiling of women

Back 183

Of all the sex-differentiated customs associated with Islam, that of the _______________ tends to inspire the greatest misunderstanding between Islam and people in the West. The practice of veiling is not found anywhere in the Quran. Women and men are both enjoined to dress modestly, but nothing more specific is said. Indeed, loose-fitting clothing that covers the entire body except for the face, hands, and feet was customary in the Arab world for both sexes until very recently.

Front 184

Rural women and lower-class women

Back 184

The mandatory veiling of women did not begin in Muhammad's time, nor is it a practice in most Muslim countries today. Scholars agree that veiling was a custom that Muslims adopted from the Persian and Byzantine empires, and that for many centuries, veiling was considered a prerogative of the upper classes. _______________ did not veil themselves, as it interfered with the work they had to perform.

Front 185

veiling

Back 185

The class associations with _______________ are still present in some Islamic countries. Women are not expected to wear the veil at home in the presence of children and close male relatives. Nor do they need to wear the veil in front of male servants in the house. These men do not have sufficiently high status to require elite women to be veiled before them. As a result, removing the veil before a man has multiple meanings: it can be a sign of immodesty, but it can also be, and has often been deployed as an insult to the man in question.

Front 186

tradition and piety

Back 186

Today, veiling is a controversial issue in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries. This controversy cannot be separated from events in the Middle East in the past one hundred years. Veiling has been associated with both _______________. Some reformers and secularists such as Kemal Ataturk and the Shah of Iran, eager to westernize their countries, made public veiling illegal. Police were instructed to rip women's veils from their bodies if they appeared on the street wearing them.

Front 187

forcibly removed in public

Back 187

If you were accustomed to thinking of a veil as an ordinary part of your outdoor clothing, it would be a great violation to have it _______________. Imagine if there were suddenly a law passed saying that you could only go out in public in a bikini. You might well react by fashioning some creative cover-up, and of course you would be mortified if someone tore it off of you. You might decide not to go out in public at all for fear of embarrassment. Indeed, this happened often in Iran under the rule of the Shah.

Front 188

political rebellion

Back 188

Given the history of compulsory de-veiling, it is clear that, at least in certain Middle Eastern countries, donning the veil would first be seen as an act of ____________, as a statement of one's right to one's traditional culture and religion, and of one's reluctance to adopt foreign customs wholesale. This is precisely the significance the veil has had for many Muslim women. However, compulsory de-veiling has sometimes been followed by compulsory veiling, which has also tended to be problematic for many Muslim women.

Front 189

after Ali's death

Back 189

When did the split between Sunni and Shia Islam occur?

Front 190

he embraced it

Back 190

What was the Shah of Iran's attitude toward the process of Westernization?

Front 191

"most akin to the son of Mary among the whole of mankind."

Back 191

Mohammad said that he was ________________

Front 192

often work together across ethnic lines in areas of common interest

Back 192

Muslims in America __________.

Front 193

dawn to dusk.

Back 193

During Ramadan, Muslims are supposed to abstain from food, water, sex, and smoking from ___________

Front 194

through the efforts of Sufi missionaries

Back 194

How did Islam first come to the Indian subcontinent?

Front 195

are equal in value to those of men.

Back 195

The Quran says outright that women's souls _____________

Front 196

have very different experiences based on the cultures they belong to

Back 196

Women in Islam _________.

Front 197

Wallace D. Fard Muhammad.

Back 197

The first African-American Muslim movement to gain substantial strength in America was the Nation of Islam, founded by _______________

Front 198

the prophet Mohammed.

Back 198

Islam began in Arabia in the seventh century CE with the teachings of ______________

Front 199

Noble Drew Ali

Back 199

Who was the first African-American in the 20th century to claim Muslim identity for African-Americans?

Front 200

as a rule, they were required to pay taxes, but otherwise left largely free to rule themselves

Back 200

What happened to non-Muslim peoples under Islamic empires?

Front 201

Yes. Different authorities often managed religious and civil matters, at least on a practical level.

Back 201

Prior to the 20th century, did Muslim countries ever separate church and state?

Front 202

both individuals and the state

Back 202

Most Muslims believe that the Quran applies to ________.

Front 203

veiling is preferable to the sexual objectification Western women experience in their immodest clothing

Back 203

Muslim women sometimes argue that ________.

Front 204

3

Back 204

How many of the rightly-guided caliphs were assassinated?

Front 205

He had a revelation from God.

Back 205

Why did Mohammed decide there was only one God?

Front 206

Hassan and Husayn

Back 206

Who were Mohammed's grandsons?

Front 207

Khadijah

Back 207

What was the name of Mohammed's first wife?

Front 208

individual reasoning and the use of analogy.

Back 208

Most Muslims agree there are four sources of law: the Quran, the Hadith, the traditions of the ummah, or Muslim community, and _______________

Front 209

Mohammed's revelations from God.

Back 209

The Quran consists entirely of ___________

Front 210

alcolhol

Back 210

After the Iranian Revolution, the Ayatollah Khomeini banned __________.

Front 211

recitation.

Back 211

"Quran" means ____________

Front 212

Mohammed Reza Pahlavi

Back 212

Who was the ruler of Iran prior to the Iranian Revolution?

Front 213

it brought together the Arab tribes, who lessened their infighting and turned their energies outward toward conquest.

Back 213

After Mohammad's death, Islam spread very quickly because ___________