Psychology Of Learning Exam 3

Front 1

Appetitive Stimulus

Back 1

A pleasent stimulus:

Front 2

Aversive Stimulus

Back 2

An unpleasent stimulus:

Front 3

Postive Reinforcement

Back 3

Is a procedure in which the instrumental response produces an appetitive stimulus.

If response occures appetitive is present.

Postitive: Response produces an appetitive stimulus

Reinforcement: increase in response rate

Front 4

Punishment

(aka: postitive punishment)

Back 4

There is a postitive contingency between the intrumental response and the stimulus outcome (the response produces the outcome), but the outcome is aversive.

Positive: response produces an aversive stimulus

Punishment: decrease in response rate

-PRODUCES THE AVERSIVE EVENT

-INSTRUMENTAL BEHAVIOR IS DECREASED BY PUNISHMENT

Front 5

Negative Reinforcement

(aka: escape or avoidance)

Back 5

The instrumental response turns off an aversive stimulus.

Negative reinforcement produces increase instrumental responding.

Negative: response eliminates or prevents the occurrence of an aversive stimulus

Reinforcement: increase in the response rate

RESPONSE TERMINATES THE AVERSIVE EVENT

INSTRUMENTAL BEHAVIOR IS DECREASED BY NR

Front 6

Omission Training or Negative Punishment

(aka: DRO, differential reinforcement of other behavior)

Back 6

Results in the removal of a pleasant or appetitive stimulus.

Withdrawaling sources of positive punishment.

Negative response between the response and an environmental event and the result in a DECREASE IN INSTRUMENTAL RESPONDING.

Perferred over positive punishment.

Negative: response eliminates or prevents the occurence of an appetitive stimulus

Punishment: decrease in response rate

Front 7

Instrumental Conditioning

Back 7

Instrumental behavior is controlled by its consequences.

Three elements:

1. The instrumental Response

2. The outcome of the response (the reinforcer)

3. The relation or contingency b/w the response and the outcome

Front 8

Triadic Design

Back 8

The design involves two phases:

1. an exposure phase

2. a conditioning phase

Findings from the rat test:

The difference in the rate of learning between these two groups show that the animals are sensitive to the response- reinforcer contingency

Front 9

Exposure Phase

Back 9

One group of rats is exposed tp periodic shocks that can be terminated by performing an escape response.

Front 10

The Triadic Design Used In Studies of the Learned-Helplessness Effect

Back 10

Group Exposure Phase Conditioning Phase Result EEscapable ShockEscape- avoidance training Rapid- avodiance learning YYoked inescapable shock Escape- avoidance training Slow- avodiance learning RRestricted to apparatus Escape- avoidance training Rapid- avodiance learning

Front 11

Conditioning Phase

Back 11

All three groups recieve escape- avodiance

Front 12

Group E

(aka: escaped)

Back 12

Exposed to periodic response that can be terminated by performing an escape response

Findings:

Front 13

Group Y

(aka: yoked)

Back 13

Assigned a partner from group E, although animals cannot turn off the shocks.

The shocks are inescapable.

Findings:

Exposure to uncontrollable shock produces a severe disruption in subsequent escape- avodiance learning.

In conditioning phase, shows much poorer escape- avoidance performance.

Front 14

Group R

(aka: restricted)

Back 14

Recieves no shocks during the exposre phase but is restricted to the apparatus for as long as group E and Y

Front 15

Learned-helplessness Effect

Back 15

Interference with the learning of new instrumental responses as a result of exposure to inescapable and unavoidable aversive stimulation.

Front 16

Learned-helplessness Hypothesis

Back 16

The proposal that exposure to inescapable and unavoidable aversive stimulation reduces motivation to respond and distrupts subsequent instrumental conditioning because participants learnt that their behavior does not control outcomes.

Front 17

What is a major symptom of PTSD?

Back 17

Enhanced fear reactivity

Front 18

What happens with an exposure to uncontrollable stimulation?

Back 18

It induces a constellation of behavioral effects that undermine the subject's ability to cope; know as learned helplessness.

Front 19

What happens with exposure to controllable stimulation?

Back 19

Has a lasting protective effect that blocks induction of helplessness if the organism later encounters uncontrollable stimulations

Front 20

What are the consequences of long-term uncontrollable stimulations?

Back 20

Depends on the region of the midbrain known as the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN). The DRN lies just ventral to another key region the PAG.

Front 21

DRN

(aka: dorsal raphe nucleus)

Back 21

The DRN can regulate neural activity in other regions of the CNS. It does this through neurons that release a neurotransmitter seritonin (5-HT). Because the 5-HT neurons project to regions implicated in stress and fear.

Front 22

Does DRN have an effect on helplessness?

Back 22

5-HT neurons have a sensitizing effect with the DRN. This enchances the amount of 5-HT released at distant sites. *These effects are not observed after an equivelant exposure to a controllable stimulus*

Maier and Watkins: showed that pharamacologically inhibiting the DRN during uncontrollable stimulation blocked the induced of learned helplessness.

Front 23

DRN observations

Back 23

The activation of the DRN is both nessecary and sufficient to produces learned helplessness

Front 24

What regulates the DRN activity?

Back 24

Through neurons that project from prelimbic to infralimbic regions in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC).

Front 25

What do these excitatory neurons engage?

Back 25

GABAergic interneurons within the DRN that have an inhibitory effect.

Front 26

What does pharmacolgical activation of the vmPFC inhibit?

Back 26

Inhibits the 5-HT neural activity within the DNR and blocks the development of learned helplessness.

Behavioral control inhibits the DNR through vmPFC.

Pharmacologically disrupting the vmPFC function should eliminate the protective effect of instrumental control. (controllable aversive stimulation should engage 5-HT neurons within the DNR and paradoxically produce the helplessness-like effect)

*IMPORTANT*

Front 27

What does the aversive stimulation engage?

Back 27

Lateral habenula

Locus coeruleus

Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

Front 28

What does this project to?

Back 28

The forsal raphe nuclei (DNR)

Front 29

What does the DNR engage?

Back 29

Serotonergic (5-HT) fibers

Front 30

What does the Serotonergic fibers then activate?

Back 30

The neural regions implicated in defensive responding (PAG and amygdala) and reward (nucleus accumbens)

Front 31

What does behavioral control activate?

Back 31

Activates excitatory glutamatergic (Glut) neurons within the vmPFC. Then projects to the DRN.

Front 32

After it projects to the DRN what does it engage?

Back 32

They engage inhibitory (GABA) neurons that reduce 5-HT activity.

Front 33

What happens when you activate vmPFC?

Back 33

It will prevent uncontrollable shock from inducing helplessness.

Front 34

What happens when you combine vmPFC activation with uncontrollable shocked?

Back 34

Yeilded an effect equivalent to controllable stimulation, engaging a protective effect that blocked the subsequent induction of helplessness.

Front 35

What effects does uncontrollable stimulation have on Pavlovian fear conditioning?

Back 35

Generally enhances conditioning.

Front 36

What effects does controllable stimulation have on Pavlovian fear conditioning?

Back 36

It has an inhibitory effect.

Front 37

What does input from the CS and US appear to be associated within?

Back 37

The basolateral region of the amygdala.

Front 38

What is the CR orchestrated by?

Back 38

It is orchestrated by the central nucleus.

Front 39

What happens with the output from the infralimbic area of the vmPFC?

Back 39

It acts to inhibit the performance of fear-elicited CRs (within the central nucleus) rather than learning (within the basolateral nucleus).

Front 40

What happens if you inactivate the infralimbic area by administering the GABA agonist muscimol, either before conditioning or before testing?

Back 40

In rats that recieved the drug vehicle alone: the controllable shock reduced behavioral signs of fear. The prior exposure rats to uncontrollable shock enchanced conditioned freezing.

Front 41

What happens if you inhibit the infralimbic region prior to conditioning?

Back 41

No effect, suggesting it did not effect learning.

Front 42

History of behavioral control reduces what?

Back 42

The expression of fear, but not its acquistion.

Front 43

Avoidance

Back 43

An instrumental conditioing procedure in which the instrumental response prevents the delivery of an aversive stimulus.

Front 44

Temporal Relation

Back 44

The time interval between an instrumental response and the reinforcer.

Front 45

Instrumental Conditioning

Back 45

The three things to consider:

Stimulus contex (S)

Instrumental response (R)

Response outcome (O)

The instrumental response (R) occurs in the presence of distinctive stimuli (S) adn results in delivery of the reinforcer outcome (O)

Front 46

S-R Association

Back 46

The key to instrumental learning and central to Thorndikes law of effect.

Instrumental

Front 47

Appetitive Reinforcers

Back 47

Reward training (positive reinforcement)

Performing the response produces an appetitive stimulus

Schedule matter

Partial reinforcement principle

Omission (negative punishment)

Performing the response prevents/ eliminates the occurrence of the appetitive stimulus

Front 48

Aversion Reinforcers

Back 48

Punishment (positive punishment)

Performing a response leads to an aversive stimulus

(ex: going to jail for stealing)

Escape (negative reinforcement)

Response contingent shock

Performing a response eliminates/ prevent the occurrence of an aversive stimulus

(ex: opening an umbrella getting rid of the rain)

Front 49

Hippocampus

Back 49

Spatial learning

Involved in learning about complex relations, the stimulus configurations that encode particular locations and episodes in time.

(NB 8.2)

Front 50

Caudate

Back 50

Habit learning

Front 51

Engram

Back 51

The biological memory

Front 52

Eyeblinking in the hippocampus

Back 52

The cells in the region of the hippocampus reflect a CS-US association.

Removing the hippocampus did not eliminate the animals ability to acquire and retain conditioned eyeblink and response.

Removing all of the brain above the midbrain had little effect on conditioned eyeblinking

Front 53

Where do the mechanisms for eyeblinking lye?

Back 53

Within the lower neural sturcture of the brainstem and the cerebellum.

Front 54

The UR elicited by an air puff to the eye is mediated by what?

Back 54

By the neurons that project to a region of the brainstem known as the trigeminal nucleus.

Front 55

What happens from the trigeminal nucleus?

Back 55

Neurons travle along two routes, either directly or through the reticular formation to the cranial motor nucleus, where behavioral output is organized.

Front 56

What three basic pathways were used to deine this pathway?

Back 56

1. Electrophysiological recording to verify that neurons in the neural circuit are engaged in response to the US.

2. Inactivating nuclei within the circuit, either permanently (by killing the cells) or temporarily (by means of a drug or cooling) to show that the region plays an essintial role.

3. Specific nuclei were artifically stimulated to show that activity in these areas is sufficient to produce behavioral response.

Front 57

Where do the mossy fibers and the climbing fibers meet?

Back 57

The cerebellar cortex, this is where the coincident activity brings about a synaptic modification that alters the neural ouput from the cerebellum.

Front 58

What do the climbing fibers act as?

Back 58

They act as teachers, selecting a subset of connections to be modified.

Front 59

What do these changes define?

Back 59

The stimulus properites (the characteristic of the CS) that engage in discrete motor output.

Front 60

What is the output mediated by?

Back 60

Neurons that project from the interpositus nucleus to the red nucleus and then finally to the cranial motor nucleus.

Front 61

What performs a type of negative feedback that decrease the effectiveness of the US?

Back 61

Conditioned activity develops within the interpositus nucleus. Neurons from this project back to the US pathway and inhibit the US signal within the inferior olive.

Front 62

When is the hippocampus necessary if the hippocampus is removed?

Back 62

If a CS ends more than .5 seconds before the US then the hippocampus is needed

Front 63

What happens with amnesic patients who have damage to their hippocampus?

Back 63

These patients cannot consciously remember the CS-US relation.

Front 64

What happens in the absence of this explicit memory?

Back 64

They fail to learn with a trace- conditioning procedure.

Front 65

What is our emotional reaction to stimuli modulated by>

Back 65

A group of structures known as the limbic system.

Front 66

What are the two components in this system that are important for learning?

Back 66

Amygdala

Hippocampus

Front 67

Amygdala

Back 67

Plays a key role in linking new affective responses to previously neutral stimuli.

Regulation of fear.

It also mediates the conditioning of fear to signal danger.

Front 68

What regions serve as distinct functions of the amygdala?

Back 68

1. The lateral (side)

2. basal (lower)

3. central nuclei

Front 69

What happens if you lesion the amygdala?

Back 69

A fearless creature that no longers avods dangerous situations.

Also disrupts the learning about cues (CSs), that have been paired with an aversive event.

Front 70

In fear conditioning where do the neural signals elicited by the CS and US converge?

Back 70

Within the lateral amygdala

Front 71

What provides a biological link that endows a CS with the capacity to elicit fear?

Back 71

Neurons within the lateral and basal region (basolateral amygdala) provide a biological link.

Front 72

What happens when you engage the NMDA receptors?

Back 72

Can initiate a cellular process that enhances synaptic connectivity, allowing a previously neural cue (the CS) to elicit a new response.

Front 73

Unlocking the NMDA gates

Back 73

Requires a strong input, such as a shock.

Under these conditions, the cue- elicited input to the basolateral amygdala (the CS) may gain the capacity to drive the neural machinery that generates fear (the CR).

Front 74

What blocks fear conditioning?

Back 74

Chemically inactivating basolateral amgydala this region, or microinjecting a drug that disrupts NMDA receptors fucntion.

Front 75

What is the output of fear channeled through?

Back 75

The central nucleus of the amygdala, which organizes the expression of fear.

Front 76

Where does one output pathwat project to?

Back 76

A region of the midbrain known as the periaquenductal gray (PAG).

Front 77

PAG

(aka: periaquenductal gray)

Back 77

Two different regions:

1. portion that lies along the upper sides (dorsolateral PAG) organizes active defensive needed for fight or flight.

2. lower (ventral) portion of the PAG mediates CS-elicited freezing behavior.

Front 78

What happens if you lesion the ventral PAG?

Back 78

Rats exhibit other fear- elicited behaviors but do not freeze.

Front 79

Sematic Memory

Back 79

You can recongize objects and understand the meanings of words

Front 80

LTP

(aka: long-term memory)

Back 80

Recall events that happened years ago

Front 81

STM

(aka: short-term memory)

Back 81

Temorarily remember new information

Front 82

Episodic memory

Back 82

Memory for autobiographical events that occurred at a particular time and place

Front 83

What distinguishes the hippocampus?

Back 83

That is accomplishes this feat in a rapid manner, incidentally in the absence of explicit reinforcement.

Front 84

What happens if a shock is given immediately after the rat is placed in the chamber?

Back 84

It is unable to presumably form a conjunctive representation of the context, it fails to associate the context with a shock.

Front 85

How can this immediate shock deficit be eliminated?

Back 85

Simply exposing the rats to the context got 2-3 minutes the day before.

Front 86

What happens if you lesion the hippocampus?

Back 86

It eliminates the capacity (context conditioning).

It does so without affecting the capacity to learn that a discrete cue (e.g. a tone) predicts shock.

The rat will notice that an objet has been changed (object memory) but not whether its location has been changed (spatial memory).

Front 87

What does context conditioning depend on?

Back 87

The derivation of a conjunctive representation and out-put from the hippocampus.

Front 88

LTP

(aka: long-term potentiation)

Back 88

A lasting increase in neural excitability observed in a (postsynaptic) neuron that has been strongly depolarized. The induction of LTP has been linked to the activation of the NMDA receptor.

Front 89

What happens when a high frequency is observed?

Back 89

LTP is typically observed

Front 90

What happens when a low frequency stimulus is given?

Back 90

An opponent-like phenomenon is induced, long-term depression (LTD) that weakens the synaptic connections.

Front 91

What happens in the absence of LTD?

Back 91

Input to the hippocampus could saturate plasticity, which would prevent further learning.

Front 92

How could a strong input increase the strength of a chemical synapse and induce LTP?

Back 92

By enchancing either the amount of transmitter released or the responsiveness of the postsynaptic cell.

Front 93

What does the presynaptic cell release?

Back 93

A neurotransmitter (glutamate) that can engage two types of receptors (AMPA and NMDA) on the postsynaptic cell

Front 94

Stimulus Discrimination

Back 94

Differential responding to two stimuli; treating each stimulus as different from the other; an organism is said to exhibit this if it responds differently to two or more stimuli.

Front 95

Stimulus Generalization

Back 95

Opposite of differential repsonding, or stimulus discrimination if organism responds in a similar fashion to two or more stimuli.

Front 96

Stimulus Generalization Gradient

Back 96

As a function of how similar each test stimulus was to the original training stimulus; they provide precise information about how sensitive the organism's behavior is to systematic variation in a stimulus.

Front 97

Overshadowing

Back 97

Illustrates competition among stimuli for access to the process of learning; how strongly organisms learn about one stimulus depends on how easily other cues in the situations can become conditioned.

Front 98

Stimulus- element approach

Back 98

Simultaneous presentation of a light and tone as consisting of seperate visual and auditory cues; a way of thinking about a compounds stimulus.

Front 99

Configural- cue approach

Back 99

Organisms treat a compounds stimulus as an integral whole that is not divided into parts or elements; alternative to stimulus-element approach; example: the sound of a symphony orchestra, originates from sounds of individual instruments, but very different from individual instruments by themselves.

Front 100

Stimulus discrimination training

Back 100

Stimulus control can be dramatically altered by learning experiences; conducted using either classical or instrumental conditioning procedures

Front 101

Stimulus discrimination procedure

Back 101

Establishes control by the stimuli that signal when reinforcement is and is not avaliable

Front 102

Discriminative stimuli

Back 102

Once the S+ and S- have gained control over the individual's behavior

Front 103

Multiple schedule of reinforcement

Back 103

a different schedule or reinforcement is in effect during different stimuli; example: an FR schedule may be in effect when a light is turned on, and VI schedule of reinforcement may be in effect when a tone is presented

Front 104

Positive patterning

Back 104

Whenever each of two stimuli occur individually, they are not reinforced (A- and B- trials); but reinforcement occurs when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously (AB-)

Front 105

Negative patterning

Back 105

The role of the reinforced and non-reinforced is reversed than positive; reinforcement is avaliavle when the cues are presented individually (C+ and D+) and not when they appear simultaneously (CD-)

Front 106

Intradimensional discrimination

Back 106

A training procedure in which the S+ and S- different only in terms of the one stimulus feature; related to issue of expert performace

Front 107

Peak- shift effect

Back 107

A displacement of the highest rate of responding in a stimulus generalization gradient away from the S+ and a direction oppositre the S-

Front 108

Excitatory generalization gradient

Back 108

A gradient of responding that is observed when organisms are tested with the S+ from a discrimination procedure and with stimuli that increasingly differ from the S+. Typically the highest level of responding occures to the S+; progressively less responding occurs to stimuli increasingly differ from the S+; the gradient has an inverted U-shape.

Front 109

Stimulus equivalance

Back 109

Generalized responding among a set of stimuli; encouraged by equivalence training

Front 110

Conditional relation

Back 110

A relation in which the significance of one stimulus or event depends on the status of another stimulus

Front 111

NMDA receptor

Back 111

A specialized receptor that functions as a gated channel. Engaging the receptor requires both a strong depolarization (to displace the Mg++ ion blocking the channel) and the binding of the neurotransmitter glutamate

Front 112

Occasion setting/ Facilitation

Back 112

A procedure in which one cue disignates when another cue will be reinforced

Front 113

What does engaging the AMPA receptor allow to enter the cell?

Back 113

Allows to Na+ to enter the cell and initiates the chemical process to produce an action potential.

Front 114

What happens at rest?

Back 114

The NMDA channel is blocked by the ion magnesium (Mg++)

Front 115

What needs to happen for NMDA receptors to work?

Back 115

The Mg++ must be displaced, which requires a strong depolarization of the postsynapic cell. This can be produced by strongly engaging the AMPA receptors at the same synapse or from a depolarization provided at another synapse on the same cell.

Front 116

What disrupts spatial learning within the Morris water maze?

Back 116

NMDA antagonist MK-801

Front 117

Premack

Back 117

Simple, empirical approach to reinforcement; try to relate reinforcement to biological needs

Front 118

Premack Theory

Back 118

"Given two responses arranged in an operant conditioning procedue, the more probable response will reinforce the less likely behavior but the less probable response will not reinforce the more likely behavior"

Front 119

Response Deprivation Theory

(Timberlake & Allison)

Back 119

Thought that all that matters is that the schedule deprive the organism of the consequent response

Took Premack's second idea and made it their complete theory

Don't have to worry about how you go measure behavior

Front 120

Problem's with Premack's approach

Back 120

Difficult to measure some behaviors

Difficult to quantify relative probability

Sometimes a more likely R does not reinforce a less likely R

Front 121

Oribitofrontal cortex

Back 121

Allows you to put a brake on the implusive side

Responsible for waiting it out

Front 122

What does CS allow to enter?

Back 122

CS allows Ca++ to enter, which fosters the conversion of ATP to cAMP by adenylate cyclase

(adenylate cyclase works better in the presence of calcium)

If calcium is higher in the cell it will make more cAMP--> Greater sensitization

Front 123

How can you get greater sensitization?

Back 123

More calcium--> adenylate cyclase makes more cAMP--> more protien kinase is activated--> more potassiun channels close--> GREATER SENSITIZATION

Front 124

What gets calcium into sensory neurons?

Back 124

Touch it. If you touch it RIGHT BEFORE shock there will be more calcium in the cell WHILE shock process what happens, so adenylate cyclase finds more calcium to make more PKA which generates larger sensitization.

Front 125

Lesion

electrolytic & neurochemical (spares fibers of passage)

Back 125

Inference of function through dysfunction

Demonstrates the necessity of particular neural region

Front 126

Activation

electrical and neurochemical

Back 126

Mimicry/ substitution

Demonstrates that particular neural region is sufficent

Front 127

Record activity

cellular and regional

Back 127

Correlations aren't always perfect

Find out by proving it wrong

Front 128

Neural system pathways

Back 128

US pathway (from trigeminal)

CS pathway (frim auditory)

Convergence (interpositus)

Inhibition of inferior olive and blockinh

Front 129

Amygdala and Emotion

Back 129

Most sensory information goes through the thalamus

Front 130

Neural systems

mort detailed

Back 130

CS pathways- PAG causes freezing response

Convergence within the basolateral amygdala

Basolateral amygdala (BLA)

Shock input goes into BLA; it gets info about pain

CS also have input to thalamus

Front 131

Amygdala gets what 2 kinds of info about the CS?

Back 131

Simple (thalamus) conditional stimulus from the sensroy thalamus

Context (hippocampus) fear-conditioning from the hippocampus

Front 132

If you lesion the PAG what happens?

Back 132

You will eliminate freezing

Front 133

What is the distinction between explicit and implicit?

Back 133

Explicit (mediated/ declarative) appear to require the hippocampis

Implicit (unmediated) no cognition is involved; don't seem to require a conscious process

-Ex: sports

Front 134

Delayed conditioning

Back 134

Where the CS stayed on until US occured; in these conditions hippocampus and forebrain is NOT needed

Front 135

Trace conditioning

Back 135

Hippocampus is needed; pause between CS and US occuring; requires conscious process

Front 136

Context conditioning

Back 136

This conditioning requires hippocampus

Hippocampal lesions disrupt context conditioing but not learning about an embedded cue

Initially, it requires hippocampus, but over a few weeks the memory is consolidated and laid down in cortical tissue

Hippocampal lesions a month after training do not affect context conditioning

After this, you can remove hippocampus and it doesn't matter

Front 137

Antagonists

(APV: AP5 and MK-801)

Back 137

The antagonists sit on the channel to prevent it from working. If you give the drug before learning occurs it will block learning. If you let them learn drug free then give the drug before the test it will not affect anything.

Affect induction, not expression: blocks new learning but not retention retrieving.

Front 138

Impact of MK-801 on spatial learning

Back 138

MK-801 block learning

Front 139

Impact of AP5 on fear conditioning

Back 139

The hippocampus is needed. If given the drug AP5 before an experiment, the rats don't remember to freeze the next day. It blocks learning. If the AP5 is given on day 2, it has no effect, they freeze on day too.

Front 140

Genetic manipualtions

Back 140

Gene targeting: knockout and transgenic- knowing out is targeting a specific gene and make a bad copy of it and inserting a gene that the mouse never had

Front 141

Knockout

Back 141

Genetic manipulation where you take out a gene. No longer has a specific gene.

Front 142

Transgenic

Back 142

Insert a new gene that was never there.

Front 143

Impact of knocking out CaMKII (alpha subunit) or CREB (silva)

Back 143

Disrupts hippocampal LTP and spatial learning: this mouse fails at learning and conditioning.

Front 144

A conditional knockout for CaMKII

Back 144

Mutation was only expressed when DOX was removed from the diet. The presenxe of DOX tuens off the tTAm which makes mice dumn, so mouse becomes normal.

Front 145

Doogie

Back 145

Created mice that made the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor into adulthood.

Tsein tested Doogie in water maze:

Exhibited enhanced LTP and learning

Front 146

Preparedness

Back 146

Biological connections that are predetermined

Adding extra (free) reinforcers degrades performance: learned helplessness

Front 147

Instrumental learnning within the spinal cord

Back 147

Doral Raphe Nucleus is tied to learned helplessness, vmPFC is essential to block the effects of shock