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192 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Greek Philosophers (500-300 B.C)
Socrates: Believed that we are born with knowledge and that if we reason we are able to gain access to this knowledge (Dualism)
Aristotle: Student of Plato
People acquire knowledge by observing
and by using logic to make sense of what they see.
Rene Descartes 1596-1650
Human mind is not subject to laws, the mind is not observable, it controls the body and the body sends information to the mind.
John Locke 1632-1704
People gain knowledge through experience.
Human mind is a blank slate when one is born (tabula rasa)
Human mind operates according to laws
Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679
Soul, spirit, mind are meaningless
Thoughts and experiences are simply by products of the working brain
Psychologist Behaviorists
Charles Darwin 1809-1882
The mind is not observable
Behavior is observable
Behavior evolves
Behavior contributes to the survival of species to adapt to their environment.
Wilhelm Wundt 1832-1920
Founded the first psychological lab in Germany
Mind can be studied objectively and scientifically
William James 1842-1910
People's minds are constantly weaving associations, revising experiences, starting, stopping and jumping back and forth. He studied habit (routines).
Functionalism
concerned with learning, sensation, perception

also how an organism uses its learning or perceptual abilities to function in its environment

Analyze experience
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt (whole)
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts
The human eye sees objects in their entirety before perceiving their individual parts
Biological Approach
suggests that biological processes are the sole reason of thought and behavior

study of genes, hormones, and nervous system
John B. Watson 1879-1958
Consciousness, mental life is superstitions
Psychology is observable, and measurable
His work was based on Ivan Pavlov
All behavior is a response to a stimuli in the environment
Cognitive approach
Believes that mental process can studied scientifically
process, memory, and think
Cognitive Psychologist
interested in ways in which people acquire information
Process information and makes sense of the world to solve problems
Humanistic approach
Importance of human potential
Self Esteem, Self actualization
Free will and individual choice
Focuses on mental health, well being, self understanding and self improvement
Positive Psychology
psychologists are concerned with four topics:
(1) positive experiences,
(2) enduring psychological traits,
(3) positive relationships and
(4) positive institutions
Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person,
Evolutionary/sociobiological approach
by observing human behavior patterns and mental process has benefited in our emergence and survival as a distinct species
Sociocultural approach
Looks at ways in which culture, gender, race and ethnicity can affect all aspects of human behavior.

Example: Differences among Men and Women
Socrates argues that thoughts and ideas are distinct from?
The world of real objects and our bodies (Dualism
Plato proposes that reason is responsible for?
balancing our appetites (Desire) and our spirit (Emotions) in pursuit of reason's goals
Aristotle argues against?
There is no innate knowledge.
His emphasized observation and reasoning foreshadowed the scientific study of behavior
The Scientific revolution (1600-1900)
Descartes argues that the human mind, unlike, the physical world is not:
Subject to Laws
Locke Suggests that , at the moment of birth:
The mind contains knowledge
Darwin argues that because the mind is unobservable, it is not:
Not a proper subject for study.
Behavior can be studied
Foundations of Psychology: In Germany, Wilhelm Wundt sets up a laboratory in 1879 to study
Mental processes scientifically
In the united States: William James's _________theory
focuses on:
Functionalist Theory
How learning and perceptual abilities are used
Sigmund Freud emphasizes the importance of:
Unconscious process and early experience
In Germany, Gestalt psychology proposes that
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts
Women in Psychology: Despite the prevalence of men among the founders, women have:
Contributed
Today, women receive the majority of
undergrads and graduate degrees in psychology
It was not until the late _____ that psychology came into its own as a separate discipline
1879
Contemporary Approach:
The biological approach is concerned with:
relationship between biological and conscious behavior
John B. Watson redefines psychology as
Study of observable and measurable behavior
Psychologist who adopt the cognitive approach believe that
Mental process can be studied scientifically
The humanistic approach emphasizes the importance of
Human strengths and virtues
Positive psychology
Sigmund Freud originates the psychodynamic perspective which emphasis:
The centrality of unconscious desires, fears and memories of behavior
Psychologists who take the evolutionary/sociobiological approach build on
Darwin's foundation by exploring ways in human behavior patterns and mental process contribute to survival
The sociocultural approach emphasizes
Culture, gender, race as factors that affect human behavior
Which approach to psychology is reflected in the research article, "The role of the Brain in Controlling Fear"
(c) Biological approach
Which approach to psychology is reflected in the research article. " the effect of prior memories on new memories.
(a) Cognitive approach
Though we may explain away our behavior, the real reasons for our behavior are forever hidden from us. This statement reflects which approach to psychology
(b) Psychodynamic
Enduring Issues: Person Situation
Internal thoughts and feelings on external events

Is behavior caused more by inner traits or external situations
Nature - Nurture
Heredity vs. environment

How do genes and experiences interact to influence people
Stability-Change
Behavior stable or does it change

How much do people stay the same as they develop, and how much do they change?
Mind - Body
relationship between experience and biological process (nervous system)

Is behavior caused by inner traits or by external situations?
Psychology as Science: Psychologist rely on the scientific method:
Describe what they have observed, explain, predict, test
As data are collected, psychologist propose
Theories to explain the data and generate a hypothesis
Naturalistic Observation
A way of seeing it like it is.

Use this method to study human/animal behavior in its natural context
Case Studies
Includes real life observations, interviews, scores on various psychological tests and measures.
Survey
Interview or questionnaire to collect information
Correlation Research
Naturally occurring between two or more variables
that two variables seem to be related.

Example: Children with high IQ will do well on their exams
The experimental method can be used to
Study cause and effect
The experimental method involves the manipulations of a ___________ variable by the experiment to determine whether it affects the ______________ variable of interest
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Results from participants in the _________group are compared to those in the ___________ group to determine
___________ variable had the ________effect.
experimental group
Independent group
Predicted effect
Multimethod Research: Psychologist often use more than one
Method to study a single problem
If the results from many studies that used different methods are in agreement, the researcher can
Give them added confidence that the hypothesis was correct
Sampling: Researchers typically study only a small sample or
subset population
To improve the generalizability of their results, researchers use
random samples
representative samples
A method of research known as __________allows psychologists to study behavior as it occurs in real life settings
Naturalistic observation
Psychologist use ________ research to examine relationships between two or more variables without manipulating any variable
Correlation
The method of research best suited to explaining behavior is
Experimental
To ensure that the results of a particular study to apply to a larger population, researchers use _______ or________ samples
Random or Representative
Psychobiology
The study of behavior and mental processes
Neuroscience
Focuses on the study of the brain and he nervous system
Neuron
Basic Building blocks of the brain and the nervous system.

The electrical and chemical messages that neurons transmit are what allow people to react to events around them.

Neurons pick up incoming messages from other neurons and transmit information to the cell body
When at rest, the neuron is in a state of:
Polarization
When stimulated, a neuron depolarizes
a neural impulse travels down the axon
Dendrites
Short fibers that branch out around the cell body

is the Input end
Axon
Long fiber extending from the cell body

carries outgoing messages to neighboring neurons or to a muscle or gland
Nerve/Tract
group of axon bundled together as though tucked in an electrical cable
The Synapse: The entire area composed of the_________
Axon terminals of one neuron

the synaptic space and the dendrites and cell body of the next neuron is called the synapse
Neurotransmitters cross
into the synaptic space to receiving neuron
Resting potential
At rest there are negative ions inside the neuron compared with the outside

When an incoming message is received the membrane opens and positively charged ions flow in
Action potential
neural impulse that travels down the axon causing neuron to fire
Synaptic Space/Cleft
Neurons are separated by a tiny gap in which the axon terminals of one neuron nearly touches the dendrites or cell body of other neurons (synapse)
Electrical Changes during the action potential
Incoming message must be above a certain threshold to cause a neuron to fire
Synaptic Transmission between neurons
Neural impulse reaches the end of an axon, tiny oval sacs at the end of most axons release chemical substance called neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
fit into their corresponding receptor sites just as keys fit into locks
Nervous System is divided into two____
Central Nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
CNS includes:
Includes the brain and spinal cord
Which together contain more than 90% of the body's neuron
PNS Includes:
Connects the brain and spinal cord to every other part of the body
carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the sense organ, muscle and glands
Brain
The seat of awareness and reason
Place where learning, memory and emotions are centered
Hindbrain
hindbrain, is nearest to the spinal cord
The hindbrain, which is just above the spinal cord, is responsible for:
Basic life process
Medulla
The medulla regulates respiration, heart rate, blood pressure
PONS
The pons regulates sleep/wake process
Midbrain
above the cerebellum
important for hearing and sight
registers pain
Site for reticular formation (RF)
Reticular Formation
regulates attention and alertness
Forebrain
Top part of the brain
includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system and cerebral cortex
Each cerebral hemispheres is composed of 4 lobes
Frontal- Goal directed behavior, concentration, emotional control and temperament

occipital - Receives and processes visual information

temporal - smell and hearing: balance and equilibrium, emotion and motivation, some language, complex visual and face recognition

Parietal-Receives sensory information, Visual spatial abilities
Cerebrum
Part of the brain that processes though, vision, language memory and emotions.

Divided into 2 hemisphere and covered by a thin layer of unmeylinated cells called the cerebral cortex
Thalamus
The relay station
Regulates higher brain centers and PNS
Limbic System
Includes the hypothalamus which Influences emotion and motivations, governs stress reactions.

governs hunger, thirst, sexual drive and body temp and is directly involved in emotional behavior such as rage, terror or pleasure.

Regulates behaviors having to do with motivation and emotion
Cerebellum
regulates reflexes and balance, coordinates movement
Frontal Lobe
Coordinates messages from the other cerebral lobes. Involved in complex problem solving tasks
Primary motor cortex
part of the frontal lobe
sends messages to the muscles and glands
key role in voluntary movement
Central Fissure
Separates the primary somatosensory cortex from the primary motor cortex
Primary somatosensory cortex
registers sensory messages to entire body
Parietal Lobe
receives sensory information from sense receptors all over the body (skin, muscles, joints, organs, taste buds)

involved in spatial abilities
Temporal lobe
Complex visual tasks, balance, regulates emotions, strong role in understanding language
Occipital Lobe
Receives and processes visual information
Association area
integrates information from diverse parts of the brain and are involved in several mental processes, including learning, thinking, and remembering
Cerebral hemisphere are connected by
Corpus Callosum
Corpus Callosum
ribbon like band of nerve fibers
the two cerebral hemispheres are in close communication through the corpus callosum
Left hemisphere of the brain
controls writing and movement of the right side of the body
Dominant in language and tasks involving symbolic reasoning
Right hemisphere of the brain
Controls touch and movement of the left side of the body.
Superior at nonverbal, visual and spatial tasks
Normally, the two hemisphere
work together as a coordinated unit
Broca's area
involved in the production of speech.
Damage to this area affects the ability to talk
Wernicke's area
Involves our understanding of spoken word or written language.

Damage to this area affects comprehension of language but not speech.
Processing of speech and language
Broca's and Wernicke's areas left side of the brain, work together enabling us to produce and understand speech and language
Neural Plasticity
The ability of the brain to be changed structurally and chemically by experience
The brain is capable of:
producing new brain cells
Neurogenesis
Production of new brain cells
Tools for studying the Brain:

Microelectrodes techniques are used to
used to the functions of individual neurons
Macroelectrodes techniques are used to
obtain a picture of the activity in a particular region of the brain (EEG)
Structural imaging techniques produce
Used to map structures in the living brain
permits 3 dimensional imaging (CAT/MRI)
Functional imaging
Family of techniques that can image activity in the brain as it responds to various stimuli
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
3 techniques that use radioactive energy to map exact regions of brain activity
MRI
Measures movement of blood molecules in the brain, pinpointing specific sites and details of neuronal activity
Spinal Cord
The communication highway: two basic functions

(1) coordinates reflex movement

(2) connect the brain to the rest of the body
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
carry information INTO the central nervous system
Interneurons (association neurons)
connect the messages from the sensory neurons to motor efferent neurons
Efferent Neurons
carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system
Somatic nervous system
affects our experience of the world both inside and outside of our bodies.

Example: from pedaling a bike to scratching a toe, involves motor neurons in the somatic nervous system
The Peripheral Nervous System connects the
The brain, spinal cord and to the rest of the body.

PNS carries messages to and from the CNS. without the PNS, no information could get to the spinal cord or the brain.
The somatic nervous system brings
sensory message to brain and spinal cord
Autonomic nervous system
Vital to breathing and blood flow
Consists of two branches:

(1) Sympathetic division
(2) parasympathetic division
Sympathetic Division
Involved in controlling and integrating the actions of the glands and smooth muscles within the body.

Busiest when intensely aroused: angry or frightened
These nerves carry messages that tell the body to prepare for an emergency or get ready to act quickly
parasympathetic division
Calming effect
body recovers from an emergency situation
Endocrine System: Pituitary Gland
controlled by the Hypothalamus
Produces hormones that regulate other glands
involved in growth, uterine contractions during birth and milk production

known as the Master Gland
Thyroid glands
secretes the hormone thyroxin
regulates body's metabolic rate
degree to which people are alert and energetic
overactive thyroid can cause excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, agitation, out of character behavior, snap decision making process
Adrenal gland
two glands adrenal cortex(outer layer)
Adrenal Medulla(inner core) secrete hormones that are involved in the body's response to stress and arousal when physically threatened
Ovaries
secrete estrogen
organizes reproductive system
Testes
secrete testosterone
regulates male reproductive system
testosterone linked to sexual interest and behavior in adults
Chemical messengers called hormones are produce by
endocrine glands, blood stream and through the body
Action of the endocrine system is slower but
longer lasting than action of the nervous system
The glands of the endocrine System
secrete hormones that produce widespread effects on the body.
Gonads
trigger development of secondary sex characteristics including breast in females, deeper voices in males and pubic and under arm hair
Endocrine System
Plays a major role in helping to coordinate and integrate complex psychological reactions. the nervous system and the endocrine system work and in hand
Humans have 23 pairs of
Chromosomes
In the nucleus of each chromosomes are
hundreds, thousands of genes
The 20,000 to 25,000 gees in each cell comprise a person's
Genotype
The most significant genetic trait are
Polygenic (many genes)
Genes
are composed primarily of DNA
resembles two chains twisted around each other in a double helix pattern
The nucleus of each cell contains
Chromosomes
Except the sperm and ovum, they contain 46 chromosomes
Each Chromosome carries_______
carries genes
Which are the basic units of heredity
genetic blueprint for all of the development
Polygenic system
each of the genes contributes separately to the total effects. Heredity may not be fully apparent
Phenotype
is used when referring to the outward expression of a trait.

Example: people with an inherited tendency to gain weight (genotype) may not become obese (phenotype)
Behavior genetics
the goal is to identify in which genes contribute to intelligence, temperament, talents, motivation, emotion, personality and predispositions toward psychological and neurological disorders.
Strain studies
Non human studies (animals)
Selection studies
The degree to which a trait is inherited
Family Studies
based on the assumption that if genes influence a trait, close family should share that trait.

Example: sickle cell, schizophrenia
Adoption studies
focus on children who were adopted at birth and brought up by parents not related genetically to them
Evolutionary Psychology
interested in the genetic roots of behavioral traits that people have in common.
Natural Selection
organisms that are best adapted to their environments are most likely to survive and reproduce.

Organisms that do not possess the adaptive traits tend to die off before they reproduce,
Sensation begins when
Begins with energy from an external source or from inside the body

stimulates a receptor cell in one of the sense organs such as the eye or the ear
Transduction
Process of converting physical energy, such as light or sound into electrochemical codes
Absolute Threshold
Least amount of energy that can be detected 50% of the time
The difference Threshold is
smallest change of energy that can be detected 50%

Varies from person to person and moment to moment for the same person
Sensory Adaptation
Allows all our senses to be attuned to numerous environmental cues without getting overloaded.

Example: We can hearing the breathing of a sleeping baby when we enter a quiet room
A __________ converts energy into a neural signal
Receptor Cell
A psychologist asked you to make a series of judgments to determine whether or not a light was present in an unlighted room would be trying to assess your _________for perceiving light
Absolute threshold
When we leave bright daylight and enter a dark theater, it is hard to see anything initially. But our eyes slowly become sensitive to light and after awhile we can see, this process is known as_______
Adaptation
Vision System- Light enters the eye through the
Cornea and pupil and is focused by the lens onto the retina
Visual information is conveyed to the brain via
Bipolar cells to ganglion cells which make up the optic nerve
Cornea
Light enters the eyes through the cornea
transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye
Pupil
after the light passes the cornea it then passes through
the pupil, the opening in the center of the iris.
Iris
In bright light, the muscle in the iris contract to make the pupil smaller and protect the eye from damage

In dim light the muscles relax to open the pupil wider and let in as much light as possible
Lens
Inside the pupil light moves through the lens which focuses it onto the retina.

The lens is focused on a middle distance and it changes shape to focus on objects that are closer or farther away.
Retina
the light sensitive inner lining of the back of the eyeball
Fovea
occupies the center of the visual field .
Images that pass through the lens are in sharpest focus here
Receptor Cells
The retina contains receptor cells responsible for vision
There are 2 kinds of receptors cells in the retina.
(1) Rods
(2) Cones
Rods
receptors that respond only to varying degrees of light and dark
Cones
Allow us to see colors
Work best in bright lights
Bipolar cell
specialized neuron
has one axon
one dendrite
cones generally connect with only one bipolar cell
it is normal for several rods to share a single bipolar cell
Layers of the retina
light must pass between ganglion cells and the bipolar cells to reach the rods and cones at the back of the retina

The rods & cones, which are sensitive to light respond by sending information to the bipolar cells

The bipolar cells transmit this information to the ganglion cells

The axons of the ganglion cells gather together forming the optic nerve, which send the message from both eyes to the brain, where they interpret sight
Rods are________ located at ______connected to______
Rods are highly sensitive
Responsible for night vision
Responsible for perception of brightness

Location: Missing form the Fovea, concentrated outside the fovea

Connections: many rods connect to a single bipolar cell
Cones are________ located at ______connected to______
Moderately sensitive to light
useful in daylight
responsible for color vision

Location: mainly in the Fovea, concentrated in the middle of Fovea

Connections: in the Fovea, only a single cone connects to a single bipolar cell
Adaptation
Process by which our sense adjust to different levels of stimulation.
Dark Adaptation
Process by which rods and cones become more sensitive to light in response to lowered levels of illumination
Light adaptation
Rods and cones become less sensitive to light
The 3 characteristics of color vision are
Hue - Different colors

Saturation - Purity of the hue

Brightness- depends on the strength of the light entering your eyes
The trichromatic theory posits that there are
According to the Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision, there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color.

One receptor is sensitive to the color green, another to the color blue, and a third to the color red.

These three colors can then be combined to form any visible color in the spectrum
Sound is an experiment created by
the brain in response to stimulation
Frequency of sound waves is the primary determinant of
Pitch
When sound waves reach the eardrum
They cause it to vibrate
The receptor cells for hearing are
hair cells lying on top of the basilar membrane
According to frequency theory the vibration____
for frequencies up to 1000 Hz, the vibrations of the basilar membrane as a whole not just part of it are translated into an equivalent frequency of nerve impulses

For sound waves between 1000 and 4000Hz, auditory neurons must fire in sequence. One neutron fires, the a second one and then a third
According to the place theory, a pitch
Sounds waves above 4000Hz
high frequency sounds cause the greatest vibration at the stiff base of the basilar membrane
Low frequency sound resonate most strongly at the opposite end
What order would sound wave follow when travelling from the out ear to the inner ear?
Cochlea
Anvil
Auditory nerve
Eardrum
Oval Window
As you sit in front of a sound generator, the frequency of the sound is gradually increased, you are most likely to notice an increase in_____
Pitch