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192 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Greek Philosophers (500-300 B.C)
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Socrates: Believed that we are born with knowledge and that if we reason we are able to gain access to this knowledge (Dualism)
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Aristotle: Student of Plato
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People acquire knowledge by observing
and by using logic to make sense of what they see. |
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Rene Descartes 1596-1650
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Human mind is not subject to laws, the mind is not observable, it controls the body and the body sends information to the mind.
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John Locke 1632-1704
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People gain knowledge through experience.
Human mind is a blank slate when one is born (tabula rasa) Human mind operates according to laws |
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Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679
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Soul, spirit, mind are meaningless
Thoughts and experiences are simply by products of the working brain Psychologist Behaviorists |
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Charles Darwin 1809-1882
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The mind is not observable
Behavior is observable Behavior evolves Behavior contributes to the survival of species to adapt to their environment. |
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Wilhelm Wundt 1832-1920
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Founded the first psychological lab in Germany
Mind can be studied objectively and scientifically |
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William James 1842-1910
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People's minds are constantly weaving associations, revising experiences, starting, stopping and jumping back and forth. He studied habit (routines).
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Functionalism
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concerned with learning, sensation, perception
also how an organism uses its learning or perceptual abilities to function in its environment Analyze experience |
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Gestalt Psychology
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Gestalt (whole)
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts The human eye sees objects in their entirety before perceiving their individual parts |
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Biological Approach
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suggests that biological processes are the sole reason of thought and behavior
study of genes, hormones, and nervous system |
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John B. Watson 1879-1958
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Consciousness, mental life is superstitions
Psychology is observable, and measurable His work was based on Ivan Pavlov All behavior is a response to a stimuli in the environment |
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Cognitive approach
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Believes that mental process can studied scientifically
process, memory, and think |
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Cognitive Psychologist
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interested in ways in which people acquire information
Process information and makes sense of the world to solve problems |
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Humanistic approach
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Importance of human potential
Self Esteem, Self actualization Free will and individual choice Focuses on mental health, well being, self understanding and self improvement |
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Positive Psychology
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psychologists are concerned with four topics:
(1) positive experiences, (2) enduring psychological traits, (3) positive relationships and (4) positive institutions |
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Psychodynamic Approach
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The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person,
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Evolutionary/sociobiological approach
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by observing human behavior patterns and mental process has benefited in our emergence and survival as a distinct species
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Sociocultural approach
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Looks at ways in which culture, gender, race and ethnicity can affect all aspects of human behavior.
Example: Differences among Men and Women |
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Socrates argues that thoughts and ideas are distinct from?
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The world of real objects and our bodies (Dualism
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Plato proposes that reason is responsible for?
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balancing our appetites (Desire) and our spirit (Emotions) in pursuit of reason's goals
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Aristotle argues against?
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There is no innate knowledge.
His emphasized observation and reasoning foreshadowed the scientific study of behavior |
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The Scientific revolution (1600-1900)
Descartes argues that the human mind, unlike, the physical world is not: |
Subject to Laws
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Locke Suggests that , at the moment of birth:
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The mind contains knowledge
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Darwin argues that because the mind is unobservable, it is not:
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Not a proper subject for study.
Behavior can be studied |
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Foundations of Psychology: In Germany, Wilhelm Wundt sets up a laboratory in 1879 to study
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Mental processes scientifically
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In the united States: William James's _________theory
focuses on: |
Functionalist Theory
How learning and perceptual abilities are used |
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Sigmund Freud emphasizes the importance of:
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Unconscious process and early experience
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In Germany, Gestalt psychology proposes that
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The whole is greater than the sum of the parts
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Women in Psychology: Despite the prevalence of men among the founders, women have:
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Contributed
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Today, women receive the majority of
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undergrads and graduate degrees in psychology
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It was not until the late _____ that psychology came into its own as a separate discipline
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1879
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Contemporary Approach:
The biological approach is concerned with: |
relationship between biological and conscious behavior
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John B. Watson redefines psychology as
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Study of observable and measurable behavior
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Psychologist who adopt the cognitive approach believe that
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Mental process can be studied scientifically
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The humanistic approach emphasizes the importance of
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Human strengths and virtues
Positive psychology |
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Sigmund Freud originates the psychodynamic perspective which emphasis:
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The centrality of unconscious desires, fears and memories of behavior
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Psychologists who take the evolutionary/sociobiological approach build on
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Darwin's foundation by exploring ways in human behavior patterns and mental process contribute to survival
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The sociocultural approach emphasizes
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Culture, gender, race as factors that affect human behavior
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Which approach to psychology is reflected in the research article, "The role of the Brain in Controlling Fear"
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(c) Biological approach
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Which approach to psychology is reflected in the research article. " the effect of prior memories on new memories.
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(a) Cognitive approach
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Though we may explain away our behavior, the real reasons for our behavior are forever hidden from us. This statement reflects which approach to psychology
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(b) Psychodynamic
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Enduring Issues: Person Situation
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Internal thoughts and feelings on external events
Is behavior caused more by inner traits or external situations |
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Nature - Nurture
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Heredity vs. environment
How do genes and experiences interact to influence people |
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Stability-Change
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Behavior stable or does it change
How much do people stay the same as they develop, and how much do they change? |
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Mind - Body
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relationship between experience and biological process (nervous system)
Is behavior caused by inner traits or by external situations? |
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Psychology as Science: Psychologist rely on the scientific method:
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Describe what they have observed, explain, predict, test
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As data are collected, psychologist propose
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Theories to explain the data and generate a hypothesis
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Naturalistic Observation
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A way of seeing it like it is.
Use this method to study human/animal behavior in its natural context |
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Case Studies
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Includes real life observations, interviews, scores on various psychological tests and measures.
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Survey
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Interview or questionnaire to collect information
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Correlation Research
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Naturally occurring between two or more variables
that two variables seem to be related. Example: Children with high IQ will do well on their exams |
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The experimental method can be used to
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Study cause and effect
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The experimental method involves the manipulations of a ___________ variable by the experiment to determine whether it affects the ______________ variable of interest
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Independent variable
Dependent variable |
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Results from participants in the _________group are compared to those in the ___________ group to determine
___________ variable had the ________effect. |
experimental group
Independent group Predicted effect |
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Multimethod Research: Psychologist often use more than one
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Method to study a single problem
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If the results from many studies that used different methods are in agreement, the researcher can
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Give them added confidence that the hypothesis was correct
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Sampling: Researchers typically study only a small sample or
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subset population
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To improve the generalizability of their results, researchers use
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random samples
representative samples |
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A method of research known as __________allows psychologists to study behavior as it occurs in real life settings
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Naturalistic observation
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Psychologist use ________ research to examine relationships between two or more variables without manipulating any variable
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Correlation
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The method of research best suited to explaining behavior is
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Experimental
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To ensure that the results of a particular study to apply to a larger population, researchers use _______ or________ samples
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Random or Representative
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Psychobiology
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The study of behavior and mental processes
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Neuroscience
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Focuses on the study of the brain and he nervous system
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Neuron
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Basic Building blocks of the brain and the nervous system.
The electrical and chemical messages that neurons transmit are what allow people to react to events around them. Neurons pick up incoming messages from other neurons and transmit information to the cell body |
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When at rest, the neuron is in a state of:
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Polarization
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When stimulated, a neuron depolarizes
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a neural impulse travels down the axon
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Dendrites
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Short fibers that branch out around the cell body
is the Input end |
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Axon
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Long fiber extending from the cell body
carries outgoing messages to neighboring neurons or to a muscle or gland |
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Nerve/Tract
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group of axon bundled together as though tucked in an electrical cable
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The Synapse: The entire area composed of the_________
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Axon terminals of one neuron
the synaptic space and the dendrites and cell body of the next neuron is called the synapse |
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Neurotransmitters cross
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into the synaptic space to receiving neuron
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Resting potential
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At rest there are negative ions inside the neuron compared with the outside
When an incoming message is received the membrane opens and positively charged ions flow in |
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Action potential
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neural impulse that travels down the axon causing neuron to fire
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Synaptic Space/Cleft
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Neurons are separated by a tiny gap in which the axon terminals of one neuron nearly touches the dendrites or cell body of other neurons (synapse)
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Electrical Changes during the action potential
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Incoming message must be above a certain threshold to cause a neuron to fire
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Synaptic Transmission between neurons
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Neural impulse reaches the end of an axon, tiny oval sacs at the end of most axons release chemical substance called neurotransmitter
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Neurotransmitter
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fit into their corresponding receptor sites just as keys fit into locks
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Nervous System is divided into two____
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Central Nervous system
Peripheral nervous system |
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CNS includes:
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Includes the brain and spinal cord
Which together contain more than 90% of the body's neuron |
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PNS Includes:
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Connects the brain and spinal cord to every other part of the body
carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the sense organ, muscle and glands |
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Brain
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The seat of awareness and reason
Place where learning, memory and emotions are centered |
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Hindbrain
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hindbrain, is nearest to the spinal cord
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The hindbrain, which is just above the spinal cord, is responsible for:
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Basic life process
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Medulla
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The medulla regulates respiration, heart rate, blood pressure
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PONS
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The pons regulates sleep/wake process
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Midbrain
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above the cerebellum
important for hearing and sight registers pain Site for reticular formation (RF) |
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Reticular Formation
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regulates attention and alertness
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Forebrain
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Top part of the brain
includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system and cerebral cortex |
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Each cerebral hemispheres is composed of 4 lobes
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Frontal- Goal directed behavior, concentration, emotional control and temperament
occipital - Receives and processes visual information temporal - smell and hearing: balance and equilibrium, emotion and motivation, some language, complex visual and face recognition Parietal-Receives sensory information, Visual spatial abilities |
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Cerebrum
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Part of the brain that processes though, vision, language memory and emotions.
Divided into 2 hemisphere and covered by a thin layer of unmeylinated cells called the cerebral cortex |
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Thalamus
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The relay station
Regulates higher brain centers and PNS |
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Limbic System
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Includes the hypothalamus which Influences emotion and motivations, governs stress reactions.
governs hunger, thirst, sexual drive and body temp and is directly involved in emotional behavior such as rage, terror or pleasure. Regulates behaviors having to do with motivation and emotion |
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Cerebellum
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regulates reflexes and balance, coordinates movement
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Frontal Lobe
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Coordinates messages from the other cerebral lobes. Involved in complex problem solving tasks
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Primary motor cortex
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part of the frontal lobe
sends messages to the muscles and glands key role in voluntary movement |
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Central Fissure
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Separates the primary somatosensory cortex from the primary motor cortex
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Primary somatosensory cortex
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registers sensory messages to entire body
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Parietal Lobe
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receives sensory information from sense receptors all over the body (skin, muscles, joints, organs, taste buds)
involved in spatial abilities |
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Temporal lobe
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Complex visual tasks, balance, regulates emotions, strong role in understanding language
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Occipital Lobe
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Receives and processes visual information
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Association area
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integrates information from diverse parts of the brain and are involved in several mental processes, including learning, thinking, and remembering
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Cerebral hemisphere are connected by
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Corpus Callosum
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Corpus Callosum
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ribbon like band of nerve fibers
the two cerebral hemispheres are in close communication through the corpus callosum |
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Left hemisphere of the brain
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controls writing and movement of the right side of the body
Dominant in language and tasks involving symbolic reasoning |
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Right hemisphere of the brain
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Controls touch and movement of the left side of the body.
Superior at nonverbal, visual and spatial tasks |
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Normally, the two hemisphere
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work together as a coordinated unit
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Broca's area
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involved in the production of speech.
Damage to this area affects the ability to talk |
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Wernicke's area
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Involves our understanding of spoken word or written language.
Damage to this area affects comprehension of language but not speech. |
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Processing of speech and language
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Broca's and Wernicke's areas left side of the brain, work together enabling us to produce and understand speech and language
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Neural Plasticity
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The ability of the brain to be changed structurally and chemically by experience
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The brain is capable of:
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producing new brain cells
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Neurogenesis
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Production of new brain cells
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Tools for studying the Brain:
Microelectrodes techniques are used to |
used to the functions of individual neurons
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Macroelectrodes techniques are used to
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obtain a picture of the activity in a particular region of the brain (EEG)
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Structural imaging techniques produce
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Used to map structures in the living brain
permits 3 dimensional imaging (CAT/MRI) |
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Functional imaging
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Family of techniques that can image activity in the brain as it responds to various stimuli
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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3 techniques that use radioactive energy to map exact regions of brain activity
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MRI
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Measures movement of blood molecules in the brain, pinpointing specific sites and details of neuronal activity
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Spinal Cord
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The communication highway: two basic functions
(1) coordinates reflex movement (2) connect the brain to the rest of the body |
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Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
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carry information INTO the central nervous system
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Interneurons (association neurons)
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connect the messages from the sensory neurons to motor efferent neurons
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Efferent Neurons
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carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
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affects our experience of the world both inside and outside of our bodies.
Example: from pedaling a bike to scratching a toe, involves motor neurons in the somatic nervous system |
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The Peripheral Nervous System connects the
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The brain, spinal cord and to the rest of the body.
PNS carries messages to and from the CNS. without the PNS, no information could get to the spinal cord or the brain. |
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The somatic nervous system brings
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sensory message to brain and spinal cord
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Autonomic nervous system
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Vital to breathing and blood flow
Consists of two branches: (1) Sympathetic division (2) parasympathetic division |
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Sympathetic Division
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Involved in controlling and integrating the actions of the glands and smooth muscles within the body.
Busiest when intensely aroused: angry or frightened These nerves carry messages that tell the body to prepare for an emergency or get ready to act quickly |
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parasympathetic division
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Calming effect
body recovers from an emergency situation |
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Endocrine System: Pituitary Gland
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controlled by the Hypothalamus
Produces hormones that regulate other glands involved in growth, uterine contractions during birth and milk production known as the Master Gland |
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Thyroid glands
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secretes the hormone thyroxin
regulates body's metabolic rate degree to which people are alert and energetic overactive thyroid can cause excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, agitation, out of character behavior, snap decision making process |
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Adrenal gland
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two glands adrenal cortex(outer layer)
Adrenal Medulla(inner core) secrete hormones that are involved in the body's response to stress and arousal when physically threatened |
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Ovaries
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secrete estrogen
organizes reproductive system |
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Testes
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secrete testosterone
regulates male reproductive system testosterone linked to sexual interest and behavior in adults |
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Chemical messengers called hormones are produce by
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endocrine glands, blood stream and through the body
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Action of the endocrine system is slower but
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longer lasting than action of the nervous system
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The glands of the endocrine System
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secrete hormones that produce widespread effects on the body.
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Gonads
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trigger development of secondary sex characteristics including breast in females, deeper voices in males and pubic and under arm hair
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Endocrine System
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Plays a major role in helping to coordinate and integrate complex psychological reactions. the nervous system and the endocrine system work and in hand
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Humans have 23 pairs of
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Chromosomes
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In the nucleus of each chromosomes are
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hundreds, thousands of genes
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The 20,000 to 25,000 gees in each cell comprise a person's
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Genotype
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The most significant genetic trait are
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Polygenic (many genes)
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Genes
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are composed primarily of DNA
resembles two chains twisted around each other in a double helix pattern |
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The nucleus of each cell contains
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Chromosomes
Except the sperm and ovum, they contain 46 chromosomes |
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Each Chromosome carries_______
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carries genes
Which are the basic units of heredity genetic blueprint for all of the development |
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Polygenic system
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each of the genes contributes separately to the total effects. Heredity may not be fully apparent
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Phenotype
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is used when referring to the outward expression of a trait.
Example: people with an inherited tendency to gain weight (genotype) may not become obese (phenotype) |
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Behavior genetics
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the goal is to identify in which genes contribute to intelligence, temperament, talents, motivation, emotion, personality and predispositions toward psychological and neurological disorders.
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Strain studies
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Non human studies (animals)
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Selection studies
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The degree to which a trait is inherited
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Family Studies
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based on the assumption that if genes influence a trait, close family should share that trait.
Example: sickle cell, schizophrenia |
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Adoption studies
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focus on children who were adopted at birth and brought up by parents not related genetically to them
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Evolutionary Psychology
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interested in the genetic roots of behavioral traits that people have in common.
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Natural Selection
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organisms that are best adapted to their environments are most likely to survive and reproduce.
Organisms that do not possess the adaptive traits tend to die off before they reproduce, |
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Sensation begins when
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Begins with energy from an external source or from inside the body
stimulates a receptor cell in one of the sense organs such as the eye or the ear |
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Transduction
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Process of converting physical energy, such as light or sound into electrochemical codes
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Absolute Threshold
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Least amount of energy that can be detected 50% of the time
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The difference Threshold is
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smallest change of energy that can be detected 50%
Varies from person to person and moment to moment for the same person |
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Sensory Adaptation
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Allows all our senses to be attuned to numerous environmental cues without getting overloaded.
Example: We can hearing the breathing of a sleeping baby when we enter a quiet room |
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A __________ converts energy into a neural signal
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Receptor Cell
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A psychologist asked you to make a series of judgments to determine whether or not a light was present in an unlighted room would be trying to assess your _________for perceiving light
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Absolute threshold
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When we leave bright daylight and enter a dark theater, it is hard to see anything initially. But our eyes slowly become sensitive to light and after awhile we can see, this process is known as_______
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Adaptation
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Vision System- Light enters the eye through the
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Cornea and pupil and is focused by the lens onto the retina
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Visual information is conveyed to the brain via
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Bipolar cells to ganglion cells which make up the optic nerve
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Cornea
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Light enters the eyes through the cornea
transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye |
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Pupil
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after the light passes the cornea it then passes through
the pupil, the opening in the center of the iris. |
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Iris
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In bright light, the muscle in the iris contract to make the pupil smaller and protect the eye from damage
In dim light the muscles relax to open the pupil wider and let in as much light as possible |
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Lens
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Inside the pupil light moves through the lens which focuses it onto the retina.
The lens is focused on a middle distance and it changes shape to focus on objects that are closer or farther away. |
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Retina
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the light sensitive inner lining of the back of the eyeball
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Fovea
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occupies the center of the visual field .
Images that pass through the lens are in sharpest focus here |
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Receptor Cells
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The retina contains receptor cells responsible for vision
There are 2 kinds of receptors cells in the retina. (1) Rods (2) Cones |
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Rods
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receptors that respond only to varying degrees of light and dark
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Cones
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Allow us to see colors
Work best in bright lights |
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Bipolar cell
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specialized neuron
has one axon one dendrite cones generally connect with only one bipolar cell it is normal for several rods to share a single bipolar cell |
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Layers of the retina
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light must pass between ganglion cells and the bipolar cells to reach the rods and cones at the back of the retina
The rods & cones, which are sensitive to light respond by sending information to the bipolar cells The bipolar cells transmit this information to the ganglion cells The axons of the ganglion cells gather together forming the optic nerve, which send the message from both eyes to the brain, where they interpret sight |
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Rods are________ located at ______connected to______
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Rods are highly sensitive
Responsible for night vision Responsible for perception of brightness Location: Missing form the Fovea, concentrated outside the fovea Connections: many rods connect to a single bipolar cell |
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Cones are________ located at ______connected to______
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Moderately sensitive to light
useful in daylight responsible for color vision Location: mainly in the Fovea, concentrated in the middle of Fovea Connections: in the Fovea, only a single cone connects to a single bipolar cell |
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Adaptation
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Process by which our sense adjust to different levels of stimulation.
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Dark Adaptation
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Process by which rods and cones become more sensitive to light in response to lowered levels of illumination
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Light adaptation
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Rods and cones become less sensitive to light
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The 3 characteristics of color vision are
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Hue - Different colors
Saturation - Purity of the hue Brightness- depends on the strength of the light entering your eyes |
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The trichromatic theory posits that there are
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According to the Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision, there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color.
One receptor is sensitive to the color green, another to the color blue, and a third to the color red. These three colors can then be combined to form any visible color in the spectrum |
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Sound is an experiment created by
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the brain in response to stimulation
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Frequency of sound waves is the primary determinant of
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Pitch
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When sound waves reach the eardrum
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They cause it to vibrate
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The receptor cells for hearing are
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hair cells lying on top of the basilar membrane
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According to frequency theory the vibration____
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for frequencies up to 1000 Hz, the vibrations of the basilar membrane as a whole not just part of it are translated into an equivalent frequency of nerve impulses
For sound waves between 1000 and 4000Hz, auditory neurons must fire in sequence. One neutron fires, the a second one and then a third |
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According to the place theory, a pitch
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Sounds waves above 4000Hz
high frequency sounds cause the greatest vibration at the stiff base of the basilar membrane Low frequency sound resonate most strongly at the opposite end |
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What order would sound wave follow when travelling from the out ear to the inner ear?
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Cochlea
Anvil Auditory nerve Eardrum Oval Window |
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As you sit in front of a sound generator, the frequency of the sound is gradually increased, you are most likely to notice an increase in_____
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Pitch
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