Psych Midterm 2, Chapter 8 & 10

Front 1

Information dependence

Back 1

reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, act.

Front 2

Social information processing theory:

Back 2

information from others is used to interpret events and develop expectations about appropriate attitudes and behaviours.
• social information effects exert as much as objective reality

Front 3

Effect dependence and the two complimentary processes

Back 3

reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment.
• 2 complimentary processes: (1) the group has interest in how individual members think/act, because can attract goal attainment (2) members frequently desire approval of group

Front 4

Compliance

Back 4

conformity to a social norm prompted by the desire to acquire rewards/avoid punishment.

Front 5

Identification

Back 5

conformity to a social norm prompted by perceptions that those who promote the norm are attractive or similar to oneself.

Front 6

Internalization

Back 6

conformity to a social norm prompted by true acceptance of the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underline the norm.

Front 7

Organization

Back 7

the process by which people learn the attitudes, knowledge, and behaviours that are necessary to function in a group or organization.
• the primary means of communicating culture and values to new members
• socialization is apart of learning

Front 8

Person-job fit

Back 8

The match between an employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities and the requirements of the job.

Front 9

Person-Organization Fit

Back 9

the match between an employee’s personal values and the values of an organization.

Front 10

Organizational identification

Back 10

The extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of the organization and what it is perceived to represent.
• direct effect on proximal socialization outcomes and distal outcomes

Front 11

Stages of Socialization

Back 11

1. anticipatory socialization: pre-entry; some formal process, like in school; informal – watching TV shows; not useful for the new member
2. Encounter: some expectations of day to day life; acceptable degree of conformity
3. Role Management: fine tuning/actively managing his/her role

Front 12

Unrealistic Expectations

Back 12

• higher expectations than reality
• eg. watching Grey’s Anatomy, and thinking that is an accurate representation of working in a hospital

Front 13

Psychological contract

Back 13

beliefs held by employees regarding the reciprocal obligations and promises between them and their organization.

Front 14

Psychological contract breach

Back 14

employee perceptions that his or her organization has failed to fulfill one or more of its promises or obligations in the psychological contract.

Front 15

Realistic job previews

Back 15

the provision of a balanced, realistic picture of the positive and negative aspects of the job to the applicants

• effective in reducing inflated expectations and turnover, also improving job performance

Front 16

Employee Orientation Programs

Back 16

programs designed to introduce new employees to their job, the people they will be working with, and the organization.

Front 17

Realistic Orientation Programs for Entry Stress (ROPES)

Back 17

an orientation program that is designed to teach newcomers coping techniques to manage workplace stressors
• mostly last one to seven days
• important for socialization

Front 18

Socialization Tactics

Back 18

the manner in which organizations structure the early work experiences of newcomers and individuals who are in transition.
• institutionalized socialization: collective, formal, sequential, fixed serial and investiture
• individualized socialization: others

Front 19

Mentor

Back 19

an experienced or more senior person in the organization who gives a junior person guidance and special attention, such as giving advice and creating opportunities to assist him or her during the early stages of his/her career.

Front 20

Career Functions of Mentoring

Back 20

• sponsorship: advantageous transfers/promotions
• exposure and visibility
• coaching and feedback
• developmental assignments

Front 21

Psychosocial Functions of Mentoring

Back 21

• role modeling
• providing acceptance and confirmation
• counseling

Front 22

Formal Mentoring Programs

Back 22

organizationally sponsored programs in which seasoned employees are recruited as mentors and matched with protégés

Front 23

Women and Mentoring

Back 23

• have difficulty finding mentors
• different concerns from male counterparts
• fear of perceived intimacy
• more critical to women’s careers than men’s

Front 24

Race, Ethnicity and Mentoring

Back 24

• mentees in cross ethnic mentorship report less assistance
• cross-race mentorship focuses on instrumental/career focuses on instrumental/career functions of mentoring

Front 25

Developmental networks:

Back 25

groups of people who take an active interest in and actions toward advancing a protégés career by providing developmental assistance.

Front 26

Proactive socialization:

Back 26

the process through which newcomers play an active role in their own socialization through the use of proactive socialization behaviours.
• request feedback and information seeking

Front 27

Organizational culture

Back 27

the shared beliefs, values, and assumptions that exist in an organization.
• way of life
• stable
• content of culture
• strong impact on both organization performance and member satisfaction

Front 28

Subculture:

Back 28

smaller cultures that develop within a larger organization culture that are based on differences in training, occupation, or departmental goals.

Front 29

Lecture, Organizational culture

Back 29

is the shared social knowledge within an organization regarding the rules, norms, and values that shape the attitudes and behaviours of its employees.
• Social knowledge
• Rules, norms, and values
• Shapes and reinforces certain employee attitudes and behaviours by creating a system of control over employees

Front 30

The “Strong Culture” Concept, Strong culture:

Back 30

an organizational culture with intense and persuasive belief values and assumptions.

Front 31

Three points of strong culture

Back 31

1. doesn’t have to be big
2. not necessarily blind conformity
3. greater success and effectiveness

Front 32

Assets of Strong Culture

Back 32

• coordination
• conflict resolution
• financial success (when the culture supports mission, strategy and goals)

Front 33

Liabilities of Strong Cultures

Back 33

• resistance to change
• culture clash
• pathology

Front 34

Contributors to the Culture
the founder’s role, socialization

Back 34

step 1: selecting employees

step 2: debasement and hazing
step 3: training “in the trenches”
step 4: reward and promotion
step 5: exposure to core culture
step 6: organizational folklore
step 7: role models

Front 35

Diagnosing a Culture

Back 35

• symbols
• rituals
• stories

Front 36

Maintenance and Transmission of organizational culture

Back 36

• Selection of employees
• Socialization of employees (stories, Rituals, Symbols, Language)
• Reinforcements and rewards

Front 37

Organizational Culture & Communication

Back 37

• Primary functions (Myers & Myers, 1982)
o Coordination and regulation of production activities
o Socialization
o Innovation

• Bad communication culture
o Culture of silence, “shoot the messenger ethos”

Front 38

Communication

Back 38

The process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a receiver.

Front 39

Effective communication

Back 39

communication whereby the right people receive the right information in a timely manner.

Front 40

Chain of Command

Back 40

lines of authority and formal reporting relationships.

Front 41

Downward communication

Back 41

information that flows from the top of the organization to the bottom.
• hierarchical
• low levels of satisfaction

Front 42

Issues with Downward Communication

Back 42

o only downward
o messages can be confused – room for error
o slowly conveyed
o too formal, too restrictive

Front 43

Upward communication

Back 43

information that flows between departments or functional units, usually as a means of coordinating effort.

Front 44

Issues with Upward Communicaiton

Back 44

• lots of issues
• lower satisfaction than downward communication
• fear of reprisal
• filters
• time

Front 45

Deficiencies in the Chain of Command

Back 45

• informal communication
• filtering

Front 46

filtering

Back 46

the tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped during transmission.
- upward filtering: employees worry the boss will use information against them - slowness

Front 47

Horizontal communication:

Back 47

• communication between disciplines
• through directors

Front 48

limitations of Horiztontal communication:

Back 48

o slow
o filtered
o unreliable
o only formal communication

Front 49

Modified Horizontal communication

Back 49

• through workers at the same level (eg. in Planning & Design, Administration would converse with Quality Assurance in Operations, because they are on the same “level”)

Front 50

Voice

Back 50

The constructive expression of disagreement or concern about work unit or organizational practice.
• horizontal or vertical
• can be organizational citizenship behaviour

Front 51

Psychological safety

Back 51

a shared belief that it is sage to take social risks.

Front 52

Mum effect

Back 52

the tendency to avoid communicating unfavourable news to others.
• doesn’t always apply to subordinates

Front 53

Grapevine and Characteristics:

Back 53

an organization’s informal communication network.
• all types of communication
• grapevine hierarchies, organization grapevine, warehouse grapevine
• personal gossip and relevant information
• 75% of the grapevine is accurate information (textbook); 76% is true (lecture)

Front 54

Hodgetts & Hegar (2008):

Back 54

• Rumour = Interest X Ambiguity
• Can be used strategically
• Organizational blogs

Front 55

Who Participates in the Grapevine?

Back 55

• personality characteristics
• type of gossip or information
• physical location

Front 56

Pros and Cons of the Grapevine

Back 56

• informed about important manners of the organization
• can test reactions
• potent informal recruiting course

Front 57

Rumor:

Back 57

an unverified belief that is in general circulation
• spread the fastest when unambiguous

Front 58

Jargon:

Back 58

specialized language used by job holders or members of particular occupations/organizations.
• can be barriers to communication, both internal and external

Front 59

Non-verbal communication:

Back 59

the transmission of messages by some medium other than speech or writing.

Front 60

Body language

Back 60

non-verbal communication by means of a sender’s bodily motions, facial expressions, or physical location.
• can be difficult to regulate

Front 61

Office Décor and Arrangement

Back 61

- more welcoming when: (1) tidy, (2) decorated with posters and plants, (3) the desk was against the wall (not separating the professor and the student)

Front 62

Does Clothing Communicate?

Back 62

- stereotyped meaning to clothing
- black raincoats v. beige – black is considered “lower middle class”
- personality traits of jean brands

Front 63

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN COMMUNICATION

Back 63

• there are differences in gender communication
• men communicate to gain power, women do so to hold rapport

Front 64

Tannen & Communication Differences - credit

Back 64

• getting credit: men are more likely to boost themselves

Front 65

Double Bind for Women

Back 65

• Expectations for how an authority figure should speak is based upon men in authority.
• If a woman is direct (masculine) she appears pushy or bossy.
• If woman is indirect (feminine) she appears incompetent.

Front 66

Male Communication Patterns

Back 66

honest, direct, factual,

Front 67

Women Communication Patterns

Back 67

nurturing, indirect, respectful

Front 68

Non-Verbal Communication Across Cultures

Back 68

• facial expressions
• gestures
• gaze
• touch

Front 69

Social Conventions Across Cultures - Loud and Quiet Cultures

Back 69

• “loud” cultures versus “quiet” cultures
• eg. in some cultures, being punctual is seen as very important, in others being late is just apart of the culture

Front 70

Cultural context

Back 70

the cultural information that surrounds a communication episode.
• high context: East Asia, Latin America, African, Arab: message is strongly influenced by the context it is told in
• low context: North America, Australia, Northern Europe (not France), Scandanavia: more literally

Front 71

Differences in high/low cultures:

Back 71

o people in high context culture want to know about you and the company you work for
o longer presentations in higher context
o age and seniority matter
o low context: like very detailed business contracts

Front 72

National Culture Dimensions
Individualism-Collectivism (Hofstede, 1980; Globe studies)

Back 72

• The degree to which a culture has a loosely knit social framework (individualism) or a tight social framework (collectivism)
• The degree to which individuals define themselves as unique entities vs as members of different social groups

Front 73

Individualism and Collectivism and Decision Making, Fundamental attribution error

Back 73

• Individualists more likely to attribute to the individual, Collectivists more likely to attribute to the situation

Front 74

Conflict resolution, Individualism and Collectivism

Back 74

• Collectivists prefer to go through a superior, Individualists prefer to confront and work it out
Endowment effect
• Collectivists less likely to show the endowment effect than individualists

Hall’s View of Culture
• “Culture is communication and communication is culture” (1959)
• Characterize cultures based on relationship between communication and reliance on the context in which communication occurs
• Low/high context addresses “how information is handled and how people interact and relate”

Front 75

Cross-cultural communication challenges: Face

Back 75

• Face = social self image
• Saving face = Behaviors or actions taken to protect one from shame, dishonor
• Low face concern: “Excuse me but it is 11 o’clock at night and the piano playing is disturbing my sleep. Can you please stop playing the piano so late at night?”
• High face concern (a comment made during a chance meeting in the hall): “Your daughter has started taking piano lessons, hasn’t she? I envy you, because you can be proud of her talent. You must be looking forward to her future as a pianist. I’m really impressed by her enthusiasm, every day she practices so hard, for hours and hours, until late at night.”

Front 76

Cross–cultural communication challenges: Nonverbal communication

Back 76

• Silence
• Interruptions
• Posture
• Facial gazing
• Touching
• Team composition
• Distance

Front 77

Eastern and Western Expressions of Dominance

Back 77

• Canadian male negotiators were more likely to use relaxed postures and express negative emotions
• Chinese male negotiators took up more space

Front 78

Protestant Relational Ideology

Back 78

• A cultural ideology in which relational and emotional concerns are considered inappropriate in work settings, and are therefore afforded less importance and attention than in social, non-work settings.

Front 79

Information richness

Back 79

the potential information – carrying capacity of a communication medium.

Front 80

Computer-mediated communication (CMC)

Back 80

forms of communication that rely on computer technology to facilitate information exchange.

Front 81

Basic Principles of Effective Communication

Back 81

• take the time
• be accepting of the other person
• do not confuse the person with the problem
• say what you feel

Front 82

congruence

Back 82

a condition in which a person’s words, thoughts, feelings, and actions all contain the same message.
• listen actively

Front 83

active listening:

Back 83

a technique for improving the accuracy of information reception by paying close attention to the sender.

Front 84

how to listen actively:

Back 84

• watch your body language
• paraphrase what the speaker means
• show empathy
• ask questions
• wait out pauses
• give time and specific feedback

Front 85

When in Rome… Principles for Cross-Cultural Communication

Back 85

• assume differences until you know otherwise
• recognize differences within culture
• watch your language (and theirs)
o avoid jargon, clichés, etc

Front 86

Two critical factors to perceived fairness of controversial policies

Back 86

1: adequate explanation
2: the style in which its delivered

Front 87

360-degree feedback

Back 87

Performance appraisal that uses the input of superiors, employees, peers and clients or customers of the appraised individual.
• required behavioural competencies

Front 88

Employee survey

Back 88

an anonymous questionnaire that enables employees to state their candid opinions and attitudes about an organization and its practices.

Front 89

Suggestion System

Back 89

programs designed to enhance upward communication by soliciting ideas for improved work operations from employees.

Front 90

Macro Level Communication

Back 90

• more holistic
• sending and receiving messages

Front 91

Connector:

Back 91

connects people to each other

Front 92

Maven:

Back 92

connects people through sharing knowledge

Front 93

Salesman

Back 93

uses knowledge to engage and persuade.

Front 94

Primary functions (Neher, 1997)

Back 94

• Compliance-gaining
• Leading, motivating, influencing
• Sense-making (not just the messages, but the behaviours, norms, etc)
• Problem solving and decision making
• Conflict management, negotiation, bargaining

Front 95

Communication Context

Back 95

• A set of circumstances or a situation
• Affects your choice of the most appropriate channels and codes
o Role and number of people
o Degree of formality or intimacy

Front 96

Contemporary Media Richness Model

Back 96

- degree of synchronization versus the presence of nonverbal and and paraverbal cues

- memo/letter, email, chat, videoconference, teleconference, face to face

Front 97

Groups using Computer Mediated Communication, Pros and Cons

Back 97

Cons

• Take more time (d=-1.71)
• Make less effective decisions (d=-.40)
• Have less satisfied members (d=-.52)

Pros

• Can generate more ideas

• Have members less inhibited by status cues

Front 98

CMC Group Effectiveness: Moderators

Back 98

• Time constraint: Unlimited time CMC groups performed equally well as face-to-face groups
• Anonymity: Anonymous CMC groups were equally effective as face-to-face groups

Front 99

Downsides of CMC in negotiation

Back 99

On email, we are more likely than in face-to-face negotiations to:
• Use aggressive strategies
• Focus more on message content than message delivery (tone, affect, etiquette)
• Attribute malevolent motives to other
• Take risks
Schmoozing reduces these tendencies

Front 100

Tannen & Communication Differences, confidence

Back 100

• confidence and boasting: more likely to be men
• women are more likely to ask questions

Front 101

Tannen & Communication Differences, apologies,

Back 101

• apologies: women apologize to build rapport, transition, men see apologies as a weakness, disorganization and incompetence

Front 102

Tannen & Communication Differences, feedback

Back 102

• feedback: women buffer; men are blunt

Front 103

Tannen & Communication Differences, compliments

Back 103

• compliments: women known to say “good job” even if it’s not the best, if asked about their opinion; men see it as an actual critique.

Front 104

Tannen & Communication Differences, ritual opposition

Back 104

• ritual opposition: women see it as a personal attack, bad idea or mistake; boys “play fight”, play Devil’s advocate, used not to challenge but rather to explore possibilities

Front 105

Tannen & Communication Differences, managing up and down

Back 105

• managing up and down: women think the most important thing is to do a good job, men is about who you know

Front 106

Tannen & Communication Differences, giving orders direct,

Back 106

• giving orders: direct men tend to dictate orders, not bossy or offensive; women misinterpret direct orders as impoliteness and overbearing

Front 107

Tannen & Communication Differences, giving orders indirect

Back 107

• giving orders: indirect: women use strategies not to appear bossy, “could we do this…”; men misinterpret indirect approach as: not being managerial and it’s easier to say “NO”