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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Goals of Psychology
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- Describe
- Explain - Predict - Optimize behavior by applying what we know to help individuals develop and behave in a positive direction |
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Spaced and Massed Retrieval
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- Spaced: release and retrieve info more quickly
- Massed: released all at once - Spaced is better |
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Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
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- Translated and communicated results of research into real life
- Environmental factors interact to influence behavior - 5 environmental systems: --> Individual --> Microsystem --> Mesosystem --> Exosystem --> Macrosystem - Mass Media moved from exo to microsystem later on - Chronosystem: Time --> sociohistorical conditions and time since life events - See notes for diagram |
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Developmental Systems Theory
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- Environment always affects development
- Influence understood only in context of genetic uniqueness and vice versa - Biology and context cannot be functionally separated --> a core idea of developmental contextualism |
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Developmental Systems Theory Figure
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- Center-left circle has "pie slices" representing dimensions of child's personality
--> Shows child is complex and differentiated biological, psychological, and behavioral organism and differentiation occurs across time - Children function within and as part of their contexts - Center-right circle represents parent in same way as center-left circle |
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Scientists are...
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Curious, skeptical, objective, and think critically
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Science is...
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A collaborative effort
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Meta-Analysis
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Method that allows researchers to combine results of several different studies on similar topic to establish strength of effect
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Scientific Method
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1. Observe some phenomenon
2. Formulate hypotheses and predictions 3. Testing through empirical research 4. Drawing Conclusions 5. Evaluating Conclusions |
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Theory
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Broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempt to explain certain observations
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Variable
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Anything that can change
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Operational Definition
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Objective description of how research variable is going to be measured and observed
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Hypothesis
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Idea that is arrived at logically from a theory; a prediction that can be tested
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Population
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Entire group about which investigator wants to draw conclusions
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Sample
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Subset of population chosen by investigator for study
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Random Sample
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- Gives every member of population an equal chance of being selected
- Increases generalizability |
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Laboratory
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Controlled setting with many complex factors of real world removed
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Naturalistic Observation
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Observation of behavior in real-world settings with no effort made to manipulate or control situation
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Problem with Surveys
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Tendency of participant to answer in way they think is most desirable
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Standardized Test
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Requires people to answer series of written and/or oral questions
--> Yields a single score --> Score compared with rest of population's |
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Case Study
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- (Case History)
- In-depth look at a single individual |
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Correlational Research
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- Research strategy that identifies relationships between 2 or more variables in order to describe how they change together
- Correlation does not = causation |
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Positive Correlation
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2 factors vary in the same direction
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Negative Correlation
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1 factor increases as 1 decreases
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Third Variable Problem
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- Situation where extraneous variable that has not been measured accounts for relationship between 2 others
- Also know as "confounds" |
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Multivariate Approach
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Method involves more than two main variables of interest
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Longitudinal Design
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Special kind of systematic observation that involves obtaining measures of variables of interest in multiple waves over time
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Experiment
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Carefully regulated procedure in which one or more variables believed to influence behavior being studied are manipulated while all other variables are held constant
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Random Assignment
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Assignment of participants to research groups by chance
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Independent Variable
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- The manipulated experimental factor in an experiment
- "Cause" --> Drug v. Placebo |
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Dependent Variable
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- A factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable
- "Effect" --> Change in Blood Pressure |
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Experimental Group
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A group in the research study whose experience is manipulated
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Control Group
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A comparison group that is as much like the experimental group as possible and is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor
--> Serves as the baseline for comparison (Placebo) |
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Validity
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The soundness of the conclusions we draw from an experiment
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Ecological Validity
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The extent to which an experimental design is representative of the real-world issues it is supposed to address
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Internal Validity
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The extent to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable
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Experimenter Bias
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The influence of the experimenter’s own expectations on the outcome of the research
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Research Participant Bias
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The influence of research participants’ expectations on their behavior within an experiment
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Placebo
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A harmless, inert substance that may be given to participants instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, and that has no specific physiological effect
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Double-Blind Experiment
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An experiment that is conducted so that neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until after the results are calculated
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Descriptive Statistics
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Mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way
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Mean
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A statistical measure of central tendency that is calculated by adding all the scores in a set and then dividing by the number of scores
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Median
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A statistical measure of central tendency that falls exactly in the middle of a distribution of scores after they have been arranged (or ranked) from highest to lowest
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Mode
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A statistical measure of central tendency; the score that occurs most often in a set of data
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Measure of Central Tendency
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A single number that tells you the overall characteristics of a set of data. The three measures of central tendency are mean, median, and mode
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Range
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A statistical measure of variability that is the distance between the highest and lowest scores
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Standard Deviation
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A statistical measure of variability that involves how much the scores vary, on the average, around the mean of the sample
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Measures of Dispersion
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Describe how much the scores in a sample vary from one another (the spread)
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Inferential Statistics
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Mathematical methods that are used to indicate whether data sufficiently support or confirm a research hypothesis
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Level of Statistical Significance
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= Confidence Level (i.e. .05 odds or less that differences between groups is due to chance)
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Statistical Significance
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The differences observed between two groups are so large that it is highly unlikely that those differences are merely due to chance
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Institutional Review Board (IRB)
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Typical entity at colleges and universities which evaluates the ethical nature of research conducted at their institutions prior to the initiation of that research
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American Psychological Association (APA)
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Developed ethics guidelines for its members which address four important issues:
1. Informed Consent: All participants must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develop 2. Confidentiality: Researchers are responsible for keeping all of the data they gather on individuals completely confidential and, when possible, completely anonymous 3. Debriefing: After the study has been completed, participants should be informed of its purpose and the methods that were used 4. Deception: This is an ethical issue that psychologists debate extensively. In all cases, the psychologist must ensure that the deception will not harm the participants and that the participants will be told the true nature of the study as soon as possible after the study is completed |
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Ethnic Gloss
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Using an ethnic label, such as “African American” or “Latino,” in a superficial way that portrays the ethnic group as more homogeneous than it really is
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Types of Bias
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Gender, Cultural, and Ethnic
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Being a Wise Consumer of Information About Psychology
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→ Distinguish between group results and individual needs
→ Avoid overgeneralizing from a small sample → Look for answers beyond a single study → Avoid attributing causes where none have been found → Consider the source of psychological information |
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Hedonic Treadmill
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The fact that many of the experiences that might temporarily enhance happiness eventually lose their novelty, causing levels of happiness to return to their previous levels. Goal pursuit can avoid this while still enhancing happiness
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Behavior is Contextual
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- A person acts on and responds to contexts, and those contexts interact
- Context doesn't completely drive behavior |
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Behavior is...
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Part of a system of contexts
System: change in any part of the system causes changes throughout the rest of the system - A change in one level changes the relationship between that level and every other level --> Result: system moves forward with behavioral change (not guaranteed) - "Biology and context cannot be functionally separated; both are fused across life" |
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Interaction of Contexts
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- Biological interacts with psychological, which interacts with social
- See notes for example |
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Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
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Field that studies the interactions between the Central Nervous System, Endocrine System, and Immune System
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Affect v. Effect
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In psychology:
- "affect" as a noun is emotional expression - "effect" as a verb is to bring about change |
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Quasi-Independent Variable
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Not a true independent variable because it cannot be manipulated (i.e. gender)
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Random Assignment
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- Each member of the sample has an equal chance of being assigned to the experimental or control group
- Decreases confounding |
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ANOVA
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- Analysis of Variance Test
- T-Test for 3 groups |
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Emotion
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Feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression
--> Biology --> Cognition --> Behavior --> Occur in a context |
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Arousal
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In the autonomic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system is involved in the body’s arousal; it is responsible for a rapid reaction to a stressor. The parasympathetic nervous system calms the system, promoting relaxation and healing
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Galvanic Skin Response
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Aspect of emotional arousal in which a rise in the skin’s electrical conductivity occurs when sweat gland activity increases; provides index of arousal
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Polygraph
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A machine that monitors bodily changes (heart rate, breathing, electrodermal response) thought to be influenced by emotional states; it is used by examiners to try to determine whether someone is lying
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James-Lange Theory
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States that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment
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Cannon-Bard Theory
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States that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously
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Pathway for Emotion of Fear
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- Direct = Eye → Visual Thalamus → Amygdala
- Indirect = Eye → Visual Thalamus → Visual Cortex → Amygdala |
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Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
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Schacter and Singer’s theory that emotion is determined by two main factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling
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Some emotional reactions...
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Are virtually instantaneous and probably do not involve cognitive appraisal. Other, longer-term emotional circumstances are likelier to involve cognitive appraisal
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis
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The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them
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Display Rules
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Sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed
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Wheel Model
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Also called a circumplex; classifies the emotions we experience by placing them on a wheel
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Plutchik’s Four-Dimensional Wheel Model
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1) Positive or Negative
2) Primary or Mixed 3) Many are Polar Opposites 4) Vary in Intensity |
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Two-Dimensional Approach
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Negative and positive affectivity (emotions)
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Broaden-and-Build Model
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A model emphasizing that the key to the adaptiveness of positive emotional states lies in their effects on our attention and our ability to build resources
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Catharsis
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The release of anger or aggressive energy by directly or vicariously engaging in anger or aggression
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Catharsis Hypothesis
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States that behaving angrily or watching others behaving angrily reduces subsequent anger
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Carol Tavris
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Noted emotion researcher and author made recommendations for controlling anger
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Gratitude
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Comes from the experience of having something good in your life that you realize you have not necessarily earned or deserved
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Other Notes
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- Link between positive emotions, health, and coping
- Interplay of positive emotions and resilience |
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Emotional Interpretations of Bodily Sensations
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Meeting an appropriate other when one is physiologically aroused can promote romantic attraction to that other
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Conclusions from Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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- There is a basic effect of greater attraction to a female confederate when arousal is greater (i.e. threat of electric shock, exercise)
- Later Refinement: Arousal facilitates one's dominant response (i.e. Unattractive partners viewed as even less attractive later on) |
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The Tyranny of Choice
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By Barry Schwartz
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Maximizer
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Looks constantly for next best thing; higher depression rates (10% extreme)
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Satisficer
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- Satisfy + Suffice
- Satisfied with what they have got (10% extreme, as well) |
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Opportunity Costs
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What you lose/miss out on by going with one option
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Adaptation
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Technology advances and society never goes backward, so we become accustomed to newest advancement by adapting to it
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Cognitive Dissonance
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When you make a decision or engage in a certain behavior that doesn't match your hopes, beliefs, desires
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Consumer Choices
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Do not necessarily equate to personal freedom
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Health Psychology
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A field that emphasizes psychology’s role in establishing and maintaining health and in preventing and treating illness
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Behavioral Medicine
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An interdisciplinary field that focuses on developing and integrating behavioral and biomedical knowledge to promote health and reduce illness
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Health Behaviors
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Practices that have an impact on physical well-being
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Theory of Reasoned Action
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Model suggesting that effective change requires individuals to have specific intentions about their behaviors, as well as positive attitudes about a new behavior, and to perceive that their social group looks on the new behavior positively
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Theory of Planned Behavior
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Model for effective change incorporating the theory of reasoned action but adding the person’s perceptions of control over the outcome
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Stages of Change Model
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Five-step model that describes the process by which individuals give up bad habits and adopt healthier lifestyles
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Precontemplation Stage
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Occurs when individuals are not yet genuinely thinking about changing
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Consciousness-Raising
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Getting people to realize that their current behavior is a problem
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Contemplation Stage
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Individuals acknowledge the problem but may not be ready to commit to change
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Preparation/Determination Stage
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Individuals are getting ready to take action. Self-belief and especially beliefs about one’s ability to “see it through” are very important
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Action/Willpower Stage
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Individuals commit to making a real behavioral change and enact a plan for effective change
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Maintenance Stage
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Individuals succeed in avoiding temptation and consistently pursue healthy behaviors
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Relapse
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A return to former unhealthy patterns
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Transcendence
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Individual no longer consciously engaged in maintaining their healthy lifestyle; the lifestyle has simply become a part of who they are
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Self-Efficacy
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The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes
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Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
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Distinguishes between intrinsic motivation (doing something because you want to) and extrinsic motivation (doing something for external rewards)
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Implementation Intentions
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Specific strategies (such as setting specific plans and goals) for dealing with the challenges of making a life change
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Stressors
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Circumstances and events that threaten them and tax their coping abilities
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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
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Hans Selye’s term for the common effects on the body when demands are placed on it. The GAS consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
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Alarm Stage
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Body’s first reaction to a stressor; a temporary state of shock during which resistance to illness and stress falls below normal limits
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Resistance Stage
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A number of glands throughout the body begin to manufacture different hormones that protect the individual in many ways
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Exhaustion Stage
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If body’s all-out effort to combat stress fails and that stress persists, the wear and tear on the body takes its toll
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Psychoneuroimmunology
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The field that explores connections among psychological factors (such as attitudes and emotions), the nervous system, and the immune system
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Acute Stressors
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Sudden one-time life events or stimuli; can produce immunological changes
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Chronic Stressors
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Stressors that are long lasting; associated with an increasing downturn in immune system responsiveness rather than adaptation
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Stress Management Programs
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Programs that teach individuals to appraise stressful events, to develop skills for coping with stress, and to put these skills into use in everyday life
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Exercise
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Structured activities whose goal is to improve health
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Aerobic Exercise
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Sustained exercise, such as jogging, swimming, or cycling, that stimulates heart and lung functioning
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Going Cold Turkey
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Some individuals succeed by simply stopping smoking without making any major changes in their lifestyle. They decided they are going to quit and they do; usually more successful with lighter smokers
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Using a Substitute Source of Nicotine
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Nicotine gum, patch, inhaler, and spray work on principle of supplying small amounts of nicotine to diminish the intensity of withdrawal
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Seeking Therapeutic Help
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Some smokers turn to a health professional for help kicking the habit. Strategies include medication such as antidepressants and therapeutic techniques based on behavioral principles
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Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
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Infections that are contracted primarily through sex⎯vaginal intercourse as well as oral-genital and anal-genital sex
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Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
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A disease caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV); a sexually transmitted infection that destroys the body’s immune system
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HIV can be transmitted only by...
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→ Sexual Contact
→ Other direct contact of cuts or mucous membranes with blood and sexual fluids → Shared Hypodermic Needles → Blood Transfusions (Now tightly monitored) |
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“Positive psychology is plain old psychology”
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Look at what works before looking at what doesn’t
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Barriers to Change
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- How stable (or unstable) have your health behaviors been?
- Poor health habits (behavioral pathogens) are difficult to change - Cumulative Damage - Pleasure and Addiction - Not weeded out through evolution |
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Behaviors
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- Acquired and maintained through biological and psychological factors (contextual factors, too)
- Reinforcing consequences --> short-term - Damaging consequences --> long-term |
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Model of Changing: ABC Model
--> A |
= Antecedents
- What comes immediately prior to the behavior? - Own, others' actions, cognitions, thoughts, moods - What context does it occur in? - When is the decision made? - What can be done to change the antecedents? |
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--> B
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= What is the specific Behavior?
- Can be a deficit --> Not enough healthy food --> Not enough exercise --> Procrastination (not enough regular studying) - Or an excess --> Too much unhealthy fat, carbs --> Too much time w/ electronics - What is the frequency of the behavior? - You need to define and keep track of the behavior --> Baseline --> Intervention --> Maintenance |
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--> C
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= What are the Consequences?
- Positive reinforcement? - Negative reinforcement? --> Take something away to reinforce (i.e. clipping toenails) - Both? --> Usually the case (good kept, bad taken away) - Consequences are both short and long (first inferred, then observed) term - What can be done to change the consequences? |
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Ways to Think About Reinforcement
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- Tangibles/Attention
--> Gets you something, like attention --> Positive reinforcement - Escape --> Removes you from "reality" (temper tantrum, addiction) --> Negative reinforcement - Self-stimulatory |
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How would you go about changing one of your behavioral pathogens?
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- Identify the specific behavior
- Change the environment --> Think about contexts - Identify and change reinforcers - Exercise more self-control --> Behavior that produces a larger, longer-term reward when people are faced with the choice between it and the smaller, shorter-term reward --> When is the decision made? |
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Stages of Change Model: Stage 1
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- No specific timeline for each stage
1) Precontemplation Stage - No intended action --> Unaware of problematic behavior --> Moved back to this stage; show resistance - Consciousness-raising of great importance |
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Stage 2
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- Contemplation
- Intend to change within 6 months - Profound ambivalence, procrastinate change, point out negatives of change |
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Stage 3
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- Preparation/Determination
- Intend to act within next month - Self-efficacy and willpower are key |
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Stage 4
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- Action/Willpower
- Equivalent of entire ABC model - Made change within past 6 months - The stage you really see - Action you've taken has to have been significant enough to avoid/lower risk of disease |
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Stage 5
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- Maintenance
- Work to prevent relapse |
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Relapse
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- Fall back into old behavior, previous stages (regression)
- Likely to occur |