Psych 102 Test #2

Front 1

Pre-Conception: Types of Cells

Back 1

- Somatic (body) cells
--> Contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total)
- Germ cells (gametes)
--> Female ovum
--> Male sperm
--> Contain only one set of chromosomes (23)

Front 2

Pre-Conception: Contexts

Back 2

- Woman's body (health, toxic load, etc.)
- Man's body ( " )
- Socio-cultural context

Front 3

Autosomes

Back 3

- Type of chromosome
- 22 pairs, possessed equally by males and females

Front 4

Sex Chromosomes

Back 4

- 23rd pair of chromosomes
- Female: 2 X chromosomes
- Male: 1 X and 1 Y chromosome

Front 5

Chromosomes

Back 5

- Contained in nucleus of each cell and made of DNA
--> Molecules arranged in a double helix

Front 6

Gene

Back 6

- Made up of a stretch of nucleotides along the DNA
- A unit of instruction for producing a protein
- All cells in the body have the same genes in their nucleus

Front 7

Genotype

Back 7

- A person's genetic material (all previously mentioned stuff)

Front 8

Phenotype

Back 8

- The expression of genotype in observable or physical characteristics such as:
--> Height
--> Body Style
--> To a lesser extent, psychological characteristics like personality, intelligence

Front 9

Reaction Range

Back 9

The range of potential the genotype provides
--> i.e. For genotype of trisomy 21 (Down's Syndrome), phenotype = lower range of possible IQ

Front 10

Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle

Back 10

- Dominant genes in each pair have the most influence on phenotypic characteristics
- Recessive genes' influence is obscured when paired with a dominant gene
--> Unless the pair contains two recessive genes. Then each will exert an influence

Front 11

Punnett Square

Back 11

- Shows possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring based on parents' genotype
- Possibilities:
--> Homozygous Dominant
--> Homozygous Recessive
--> Heterozygous

Front 12

Polygenic Control

Back 12

Influence of a number of genes, not a pair
--> This is most often the case, especially for psychological constructs

Front 13

Codominance

Back 13

Both genes give some units of instruction
- Sickle-Cell Anemia (SCA)
--> 1 in 600 African-Americans (& Greek-Americans) have SCA
--> Recessive gene on chromosome 11 induces a change in a single amino acid in hemoglobin, the molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen
--> Crescent-shaped cells are ineffective in carrying O2
--> Short life span of cells
--> Bone marrow replaces with difficulty

Front 14

Punnett Square for SCA

Back 14

- Parents are both heterozygous
- Homozygous for sickle cell (25%)
- Heterozygous = "Sickle Cell Trait" (50%)
--> In high altitude or when exercising, may have trouble replacing red blood cells
- Case of codominance

Front 15

X-Linked Inheritance

Back 15

- Females have a second X chromosome (XX)
--> Chances of having mutation or disease are less
--> But they may be carriers
- Males have XY
--> No second chance
--> Males are more likely to have X-linked diseases
--> Hemophilia, Hunter's Syndrome (MPSII)
* Miscarriage, infant/child mortality, birth defects, learning disabilities, mental retardation

Front 16

Molecular Genetics

Back 16

Field involving the actual manipulation of genes using technology to determine their effect on behavior

Front 17

Selective Breeding

Back 17

Genetic method in which organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much of a particular trait they display

Front 18

Behavior Genetics

Back 18

Study of the degree and nature of heredity's influence on behavior

Front 19

Twin Study

Back 19

Examine extent to which individuals are shaped by their heredity and their environmental experiences

Front 20

Identical Twins

Back 20

Develop from a single, fertilized egg that splits into 2 genetically identical embryos, each of which becomes a person

Front 21

Fraternal Twins

Back 21

Develop from separate eggs and sperm, and so they are no more genetically similar than non-twin siblings and may even be of different sexes

Front 22

Nature vs. Nurture

Back 22

- Is development influenced most by biological heredity or environmental experiences?
- Nature: genetics/biology produce developmental change
- Nurture: suggests that environment, upbringing, rearing = influence
- Dumb Question. It should be, "How do nature and nurture interact to produce development change and outcomes?"

Front 23

Developmental Research Designs: Cross-Sectional

Back 23

- Individuals of different ages are compared at one time
- i.e. Compare a sample of 15-year-olds with a sample of 19-year-olds to examine possible age differences in identity commitments
- Inter-individual differences

Front 24

Cohort

Back 24

A group of people connected to one another (born in same year)

Front 25

Developmental Research Designs: Longitudinal

Back 25

- The same individuals are studied over a period of time
- i.e. Test individuals at 15, 17, and again at 19 to see how identity commitments are made over time
- Intra-individual change

Front 26

Prenatal Development

Back 26

- Approximately 266 days
- Trimesters have no biological reality
- Embryological Calendar

Front 27

Germinal Period

Back 27

- First 2 weeks after conception
- Zygote created
- Zygote takes 4 days to emerge from fallopian tube into uterus
- After many cell divisions, a mass of 100 to 150 cells has attached to the uterine wall
- Morula ("mulberry") = 58 cells
- More than 50% of conceptions are not accepted by body as such

Front 28

Embryonic Period

Back 28

- Occurs from 2 to 8 weeks after conception
- Before most women even know that they’re pregnant, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and the beginnings of organs appear

Front 29

Fetal Period

Back 29

- Begins 2 months after conception and lasts until birth
- Organs mature to the point at which life can be sustain outside the womb, and muscles begin their first exercises

Front 30

Organogenesis

Back 30

- Organ formation
- Weeks 3-8 (embryological calendar)
- Greatest susceptibility to teratogens (structural defects)
- The CNS (including brain) is developing throughout pregnancy (structural and functional deficits)

Front 31

Teratogen

Back 31

- "Monster Maker"
- Any agent that causes birth defects

Front 32

Teratogens: Drugs

Back 32

- Prescription and nonprescription
- Thalidomide and DES
- Alcohol, tobacco, caffeine
- Cocaine, heroin, crystal meth

Front 33

Teratogens: Environmental Pollutants

Back 33

- Mercury
- Lead
- Pesticides
- Solvents

Front 34

Teratogens: Infectious Diseases

Back 34

- German Measles

Front 35

Toxics Release Inventory

Back 35

- Government database on harmful agents in the environment
- More than half are neurotoxins
--> Solvents (chemical taxicabs)
- Pesticides (TRI does not report these)
- Heavy Metals
--> Nickel interferes with placenta's ability to make and releases hormones
--> Lead
--> Mercury
- Bisphenol-A (BPA) in polycarbonate plastic
--> Infant and Nalgene bottles

Front 36

Prenatal Lead Effects

Back 36

- 6th month prenatal development: bones harden
--> Calcium and lead are mobilized in mother's body
--> Taken up by placenta
--> Prevents dendritic branching
--> Lower IQ, learning deficits

Front 37

Caffeine Effects on Prenatal Development

Back 37

- Teratogenic & decreases fertility
- Crosses the placenta
- Concentrates in fetal brain
- Concentrations in fetus may exceed maternal blood concentration
- Diffuses into breast milk
- Lowers placental weight and blood flow
- Lowers prenatal brain weight
- Lowers dopamine
--> Prenatal exposure impairs developing dopaminergic neurons
--> (Questionably) affects feeling pleasure, altered moods, altered sleep-wake cycle (movement, hyperactivity, etc.)
- Half-life in adult = 3.1-6 hrs
- Pregnant woman = 4.7-10.5 hrs
- Half-life increases throughout pregnancy
- Half-life in Infants
- 1.5 mo. old = 41 hrs
- 4 mo. Old = 14 hrs
- Interaction with nutrition
1. Contributes to iron deficiency in mother & infant
- Inhibits iron absorption
- Iron is required for DNA & protein synthesis
2. Nutritional deprivation
- Protein-calorie malnutrition affects brain dev.
- Zinc in brain is decreased
- Delayed nipple attachment
3. Low income/low ed.
- Higher caffeine intake AND
- Higher rates of malnutrition

Front 38

The Neuron

Back 38

- Axon takes information away to terminal buttons and then to other neurons
- Arborization (Dendritic Spreading): neurons (dendrites) branching out and making connections with other neurons
- Pruning: when dendritic branches that are unused are cut back

Front 39

Interference with Specific Mechanisms

Back 39

Teratogens work by:
- Creating mutations --> chemical changes in the genetic code that lead to changes in genotype
- Interfering with cell division and migration --> cells don't get to where they're supposed to go
- Interactions between genes and environment

Front 40

Range of Effects

Back 40

- Teratogens don't show uniformly the same effects on prenatal development
--> Direct or Indirect
1) Death
2) Malformation: disrupt development of specific organs or systems
3) Growth Retardation: low birth weight
4) Functional Disorders: behavioral consequences (i.e. cognitive --> ADD, ADHD, emotional)

Front 41

Developmental Delay

Back 41

- Problems may be ameliorated by a supportive, care-giving environment
- Few measurable long-term consequences

Front 42

"Sleeper Effects"

Back 42

- Later in development
- Reading problems in school, attention problems
- DES: drug that led to reproductive cancers in adulthood of child

Front 43

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Back 43

A cluster of abnormalities that occurs in children born to mothers who are heavy drinkers. These abnormalities include a small head, facial characteristics such as wide-spaced eyes, flattened nose, defective limbs, and heart defects. Most FAS children are also below average in intelligence

Front 44

Preterm Infant

Back 44

An infant that is born prior to 38 weeks after conception and who is at greater risk of abnormal childhood development

Front 45

Poverty and Other Socioeconomic Conditions

Back 45

Can affect the development significantly of preterm infants

Front 46

Reflexes

Back 46

- Nourish the infant
- Protect the infant
- Lay pathways for later development of the infant

Front 47

Reflexes: Rooting

Back 47

Turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek

Front 48

Sucking

Back 48

Sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation

Front 49

Babinski

Back 49

Fanning and curling toes when foot is stroked

Front 50

Moro

Back 50

Throwing the arms out, arching the back, and bringing the arms together as if to hold onto something (in response to loud noise or sudden change in position of the head)

Front 51

Grasping

Back 51

Curling the fingers around an object

Front 52

Stepping

Back 52

When infant is held upright and stood on a solid surface, he or she will take steps (march) rhythmically

Front 53

Startling

Back 53

Infant wakes up suddenly

Front 54

What do infants "prefer" to look at?

Back 54

- No voluntary control over attention partitioning
- You capture the infant's attention
- Visual contours (curves)
- High complexity
- High contrast (black/white v. gray)
- Frequent movement
- Faces (highly stimulating)

Front 55

Cephalocaudal Pattern of Development

Back 55

Sequence of growth occurs from top (head) to bottom (feet)
--> Size, weight, sensory, and motor development

Front 56

Proximodistal Pattern of Development

Back 56

Growth sequence begins at center of body and moves toward extremities

Front 57

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Back 57

- Children actively construct their cognitive world as they go through a series of stages, using schemas to make sense of what they experience
- Schema: patterns of actions and thoughts that organize knowledge
--> Assimilation incorporates new info into existing schemes (schema stays the same)
--> Accommodation adjusts existing schemes to fit new information (schema changes)

Front 58

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Back 58

- Sensorimotor (birth - 2 years): infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with motor (physical) actions
--> Cognitively reversible, highly organized, conforms to rules of logic
--> Object permanence: understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched
--> Symbolic Function
- Preoperational (2-7 years): thought becomes more symbolic than in the Sensorimotor stage but the child cannot yet perform operations
--> Use actions to think and communicate
--> "Why?"
--> Don't understand cause and effect
--> Lack conservation abilities (not logical or flexible in thinking, centration (on 1 variable), irreversibility)
- Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
--> Reversible, flexible mental actions
--> Classification skills
--> Coordination of several characteristics
--> De-centration
--> Logical, rather than intuitive, about things of a physical nature
- Formal Operational (11 years - adulthood)
--> Abstract reasoning and logic
--> Idealism
--> Abstract Thinking: Logical about things that do not have a physical basis (love, poverty, peace, justice), can solve algebraic equations
--> Logical Thinking: more like scientists; devising plans to solve problems; systematically test solutions

Front 59

Attachment

Back 59

- Strong, affectionate tie that develops between infants and caregivers who have responded to their needs

Front 60

Ethological Theory of Attachment

Back 60

- Bowlby
- Attachment is the result of inborn behavior patterns that elicit care-giving from others to ensure the survival of the infant

Front 61

Species-Specific Behaviors (in Humans)

Back 61

- Making eye contact (gazing)
--> Interactional synchrony
- Crying
- Grasping (clinging)
- Smiling (laughter)
- Cuddling

Front 62

Harlow's Monkeys

Back 62

- Attachment is about more than food
- Monkeys that were not given care but still had all basic needs met turned out strange
- With 2 fake monkey mothers (1 w/ food, 1 more comforting), monkeys spent more time with more comforting mother and just used the other one for food and nothing else

Front 63

Phases of Attachment: Birth --> 6 Weeks

Back 63

- Infant recognizes mother's smell, voice
- Infant attracted to all social cues
- Prefers humans to inanimate objects

Front 64

6 Weeks --> 6-8 Months

Back 64

- Infant learns to discriminate familiar and unfamiliar people (stranger anxiety)
- Develops expectations that caregiver will respond (trust)
- Smiling

Front 65

9 Months --> 18-24 Months

Back 65

- Clear-cut attachment
- Separation anxiety --> differs in different cultures

Front 66

Factors that Affect Attachment Security

Back 66

- Quality of caregiving
--> Sensitive Caregiving: consistent and appropriate responses
--> Interactional Synchrony: "emotional dance," matched emotional states
- You cannot spoil an infant by giving attention

Front 67

Preferential Looking

Back 67

A test of perception that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at and that is used to determine whether infants can distinguish between objects

Front 68

Habituation

Back 68

Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations. Habituation is used in infant research to examine if an infant can discriminate between an old stimulus and a new one

Front 69

Cognitive Development

Back 69

How thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature

Front 70

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

Back 70

- Denotes adolescents’ ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems
- Part of Formal Operational Stage

Front 71

Myelination

Back 71

The proves of the myelin sheath encasing axons with fat cells; begins prenatally and continues after birth and some aspects continue into adolescence

Front 72

Conservation

Back 72

- A belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects or situations in spite of superficial changes
- Part of Preoperational Stage

Front 73

Egocentrism

Back 73

- The inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective
- Part of Preoperational Stage

Front 74

Secure Attachment

Back 74

An important aspect of socioemotional development in which infants use the caregiver, usually the mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment

Front 75

Temperament

Back 75

- An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding
- Easy (positive mood, quickly establish regular routines, adapts easily to new experiences)
- Difficult (react negatively, cry frequently, irregular daily routines, slow to accept new experiences)
- Slow-to-Warm-Up Child (low activity level, somewhat negative, low adaptability, low intensity of mood)

Front 76

Effortful Control, Self-Regulation:

Back 76

Controlling arousal and not being easily agitated

Front 77

Inhibition

Back 77

Being shy and showing distress in an unfamiliar situation

Front 78

Negative Affectivity

Back 78

Tending to be frustrated or sad

Front 79

Authoritarian Parenting

Back 79

A restrictive, punitive parenting style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent’s directions and to value hard work and effort

Front 80

Neglectful Parenting

Back 80

A parenting style in which parents are uninvolved in their child’s life

Front 81

Indulgent Parenting

Back 81

A parenting style in which parents are involved with their children but place few limits on them

Front 82

Authoritative Parenting (Best)

Back 82

A parenting style that encourages children’s independence (but still places limits and controls on their behavior); it includes extensive verbal give-and-take, and warm and nurturing interactions with the child

Front 83

Reciprocal Socialization

Back 83

Children socialize with their parents just as parents socialize with their children

Front 84

Kohlberg’s Theory

Back 84

- Moral development consists of three levels
- #1 Preconventional Level: based primarily on punishments or rewards from the external world
- #2 Conventional Level: individual abides by standards such as those learned from parents or society’s laws
- #3 Postconventional Level: individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops a personal moral code. The code reflects the principles generally accepted by the community or more abstract principles for all of humanity

Front 85

Prosocial Behavior

Back 85

Behavior that is intended to benefit other people

Front 86

Gender

Back 86

The social and psychological aspects of being female and male

Front 87

Androgens

Back 87

The main class of male sex hormones

Front 88

Estrogens

Back 88

The main class of female sex hormones

Front 89

Resilience

Back 89

A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times

Front 90

Areas of Adolescent Development in Transition

Back 90

Biological, emotional, cognitive, interpersonal, social, educational, religious, chronological, legal, cultural

Front 91

Beginnings and Endings of Adolescent Development

Back 91

- Broadly, the beginning is biological (start of puberty)
- Broadly, the ending is sociocultural (access to and responsibility for adult privileges, adult roles)

Front 92

Secular Trends

Back 92

- 1/2 inch in height per generation
- Menarche --> Decline of approximately 4 months/decade
- Secular trend is "complete" in US, UK, and Japan

Front 93

Full Adult Height

Back 93

1890: Boys = 23-25 yrs, Girls = 19-20
1990: Boys = 18-20, Girls = 16-17

Front 94

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development

Back 94

- The primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people
- 8 stages = life span
- Each stage = unique developmental task (crisis = opportunity)
- Increased vulnerability and enhanced potential

Front 95

Erikson's Stages

Back 95

- Trust v. Mistrust (Infancy)
- Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt (2-3 yrs)
- Initiative v. Guilt (3-6)
- Industry v. Inferiority (7-12)
- Identity v. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)
- Intimacy v. Isolation (Emerging/Early Adulthood)
- Generativity v. Stagnation (Adulthood)
- Integrity v. Despair (Adulthood)

Front 96

Industry

Back 96

Mastering knowledge and intellectual skills

Front 97

Generativity

Back 97

Generating and caring for what you create (younger generations)

Front 98

Integrity

Back 98

Feeling connected and good about what you have generated and are possibly leaving behind

Front 99

Early Adolescence Identity

Back 99

- Group identity v. Alienation
- Relations w/ Peers
--> Social support
--> Meaningful connections
- Lack of connectedness = alienation
- Differentiation of self
--> Mid Adolescence = the most inconsistencies and contradictions in self

Front 100

Late Adolescence Identity

Back 100

- Individual identity v. Identity Confusion
- Role Experimentation

Front 101

Identity

Back 101

- A sense of who one is and what one stands for
- A set of values and ideals that should guide behavior

Front 102

Identity v. Identity Confusion

Back 102

- Who am I?
- What do I believe in?
- What are my values?
- Where am I going in life?
- What will I commit to?

Front 103

The Elements of Identity

Back 103

Political, religious, vocational/career, cultural/ethnic, sexual, relationship, achievement/intellectual, physical identity/body

Front 104

Psychological Moratorium

Back 104

A gap between the security of childhood and autonomy of adulthood

Front 105

Achieving a Positive Identity

Back 105

Explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path in life

Front 106

How Identity Confusion Reigns

Back 106

Identity is pushed on the adolescent by parents or the adolescent does not adequately explore many roles

Front 107

The Process of Identity Development

Back 107

- Exploration: Individual is choosing among meaningful alternatives
- Commitment: Individuals show a personal investment in what they are going to do
- Identity status is a function of the two
- See notes for table

Front 108

Identity Diffusion

Back 108

- Disjointed, incomplete sense of self --> autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, and achievement are all separate or unexamined
- Normal during pre-adolescence --> psychopathology in adulthood
- Avoidance of closeness with others
- Diffusion of time perspective, feeling that "I'm out of step with others"
- Diffusion of industry
- Problems with decision making

Front 109

Identity Foreclosure

Back 109

- Have internalized the norms and expectations held for them by parents and significant others
- They bypass exploration, willingly or unwillingly
- Early role selection/commitment

Front 110

Puberty

Back 110

A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence

Front 111

Testosterone

Back 111

An androgen associated in boys with the development of genitals, an increase in height, and voice change

Front 112

Estradiol

Back 112

An estrogen associated in girls with breast, uterine, and skeletal development

Front 113

Life Span

Back 113

- Maximum Limit
- In humans...
--> 120 years
--> Has not changed throughout history
--> Not clear whether it will in the future
- Species-specific
- Galapagos Turtle = 100+ yrs
- Common Toad = 36
- House Mouse (w/o Cat) = 3

Front 114

Life Expectancy

Back 114

- Changes throughout history
--> 1900 = 46 years
--> Today = ~77 years
* 80 for white women
* 74 for white men
* 70 for African Americans
* 82 for Japanese
* 34/37 for women/men in Zimbabwe (rates of HIV infection have fallen from 24.6% in 2003 to 20.1% in 2005; 800% inflation = healthcare professionals leave the country)

Front 115

Life Expectancy in U.S.

Back 115

Has increased due to:
- Better medicine (Medical Advances)
- Better nutrition, food distribution
- Better living conditions
- Better working condtions

Front 116

Changing Demographics

Back 116

- Since 1900, the U.S. population has tripled (65+ increased 10x)
- 1900: 25% of people lived to 65
- 1990s: 75% of people live to 65

Front 117

Age Structure

Back 117

- In the 1800s, pyramidal
- By 2050, rectangular for developed nations (stability)
- Factors changing the age structure (i.e. Infanticide amongst females in China)

Front 118

Primary Aging

Back 118

- Innate maturational processes
- Wrinkles, graying, need for glasses

Front 119

Secondary Aging

Back 119

- Changes that result from illness or disease
- Skin cancer, glaucoma, prostate cancer (men), ovarian cancer (women)
- A common misconception is that illness and disease are normal for older adults

Front 120

Rodin and Langer's Experiment

Back 120

Nursing home residents with enhanced autonomy and control happier and more active, still doing better 18 months later, and half the mortality rate of those not subjected to treatment

Front 121

Schultz's Experiment

Back 121

"High control" groups of nursing home residents had gains in:
- Positive affect
- Activity level
- General Health
--> However, when the study ended, these groups did worse

Front 122

Adult Development

Back 122

Inter-individual differences
- Heterogeneity

Front 123

Plasticity and Canalization

Back 123

- Plasticity: ability to change course, mind based on experience or genetics
--> Narrowing the range creates many new, diverging opportunities and vice versa
- Canalization: The directing or choosing of a life course (i.e. college choice)
- Reserve capacity (declines)
--> Most people, however, never fully test it
- Physical and mental health more strongly correlated in old age

Front 124

Memory is Interactive

Back 124

- With individual "inner levels" of development
* Bio <---> Psycho <---> Social Interaction
- Between individual and "outer levels"
--> With other individuals
* Social, collaborative cognition ("remind me to..")
--> Within society: our attitudes, beliefs, and expectations about memory affect memory performance

Front 125

Information Processing Model

Back 125

See notes

Front 126

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Back 126

- Simple storage, up to 60 seconds
- Attention gets it in, rehearsal saves it

Front 127

Working Memory

Back 127

- Active manipulation of info in STM
- Selecting, coordinating, and processing incoming information
- Also, recalling from long-term memory

Front 128

Long-Term Memory

Back 128

- Semantic: remembrance of acquired knowledge (i.e. What is a bike?)
- Episodic: recall specific details of previous events (i.e. When did I last ride a bike?)
- Procedural: non-declarative, perceptual-motor (i.e. How do I ride a bike?)
--> Not greatly affected by age

Front 129

Aging

Back 129

- Affects recall, but not recognition
- However, performance in recall versus recognition may be influenced by encoding techniques

Front 130

Mental Imagery

Back 130

- A type of encoding
- Improved performance of middle-aged adults
- Interacts with personality
--> Openness to experience

Front 131

Emerging Adulthood

Back 131

The transition from adolescence to adulthood, containing five key characteristics:
→ Identity exploration, especially in love and work
→ Instability
→ Self-focused
→ Feeling “in-between”
→ The age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives

Front 132

Cellular-Clock Theory

Back 132

Leonard Hayflick’s view that cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times and that, as we age, our cells become less capable of dividing
→ Each time a cell divides, the telomeres that protect the ends of chromosomes become shorter and shorter

Front 133

Free-Radical Theory

Back 133

Another biological theory of aging which states that people age because inside their cells unstable oxygen molecules know as free radicals are produced. These molecules ricochet around in the cells, damaging DNA and other cellular structures. The damage done by free radical may lead to a range of disorders

Front 134

Alzheimer Disease

Back 134

A progressive, irreversible brain disorder that is characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical functioning of older adults; brain itself deteriorates and shrinks
→ Far more pronounced increase in number of tangles (tied bundles of proteins that impair the function of neurons) and plaques (deposits that accumulate in the brain’s blood vessels)
→ Involves deficiency in acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that plays an important part in memory

Front 135

Crystallized Intelligence

Back 135

An individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills → increases in middle adulthood

Front 136

Fluid Intelligence

Back 136

An individual’s ability to reason abstractly → decreases in middle adulthood

Front 137

Wisdom

Back 137

Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life → One aspect of intelligence that likely increases with age

Front 138

Marriage and Divorce

Back 138

- In the last two decades, it has become clear both women and men are waiting to marry
- Divorce rate in U.S. is highest of any industrialized country
- Divorce rate increases for those who marry under the age of 18 (59%), but decreases sharply for those marrying when over 20 (36%)
- Research shows whether a marriage works or not depends greatly on whether the spouses are good friends
- John Gottman’s four principles for a successful marriage
→ Nurturing fondness and admiration: sing each other’s praises, put positive spin on talk with and about them
→ Turning toward each other as friends: look to each other for support in times of stress and difficulty
→ Giving up some power: bad marriages often involve one power-mongering partner
→ Solving conflicts together: couples work to solve problems, regulate their emotion during times of conflict, and compromise to accommodate one another

Front 139

Mid-Life Crises

Back 139

- Mid-life crises are actually very uncommon (10%); “mid-life consciousness” may be a better term
- Because they have a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults are motivated to spend more time with familiar individuals, narrowing social interaction
- Older adults have reported experiencing more positive and less negative emotion than younger adults