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131 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Structure of Consciousness |
1. Conscious: controlled, sequential 2. Preconscious: easily retrieved, stored knowledge 3. Subconscious: simultaneous, automatic processing of sights, sounds, sensations 4. Freud's Unconscious: repressed memories, impulses difficult to retrieve, accessible in dreams 5. Non-conscious: physiological processes not available to awareness, can be influenced through conscious intent |
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Circadian Rhythms |
- biological clock governing cycles in bodily functions - adjusted by light -- from retina to hypothalamus to pineal gland -- leads to secretion of melatonin which contributes to sleep regulation |
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Why is sleep important? |
- to maintain a healthy brain: repair damaged cells, grow new neurons, replenish energy stores - consolidate memory and learning - maintain psychological health: regulate mood and handling stress |
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Stages in Sleep Cycle |
Stage 1: Light sleep, 1-7 min, (THETA WAVES), hypnic jerks Stage 2: 10-25 min, (SLEEP SPINDLES), may involve some dreaming Stage 3&4: 30 min, slow-wave sleep, (DELTA WAVES) Stage 5: REM (rapid eye movement), and dreaming |
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REM Sleep |
- when most dreams occur - about 20% of sleeping time - increase in brain activity and arousal, however - major muscle groups inhibited - *lucid dreaming |
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Content of Dreams (university students) |
- chased or pursued - sexual experiences - falling/flying - school, teachers, studying - arriving late - verge of falling - a person alive as dead |
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Wish Fulfillment Theory |
- freud - dreams express unconscious motives and wishes - manifest content: consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level - latent content: refers to hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot |
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Problem Solving View |
- dreams reflect an attempt to solve problems in waking-life |
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Activation Synthesis Model |
- biological view - dreams are the by product of random neural firing from subcortical structures in the brain |
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Sleep Deprivation |
- adults should get 7-9 hours - adolescents (11-17 years): 8.5-9.5 hours - sleep disturbances: associated with medical conditions, immunity to disease reduced, inflammation in body increased - deprivation: impaired concentration and cognitive performance, emotional centres of the brain more reactive, misperceptions during monotonous tasks |
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Sleep Success |
1. Develop a consistent bedtime routine - wake up and sleep at regular times 2. use principles of conditioning - bed should be associated with sleep/ not alert activities 3. expose yourself to bright light early in the day - will reset your clock 4. avoid excessive caffeine after 2 pm 5. Schedule "worry time" - do our worrying and find solutions earlier in the day |
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Meditation |
- group of practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes under greater voluntary control - benefits: attention, emotional, physical and psychological |
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Types of Meditation |
1. Focused attention: attention is concentrated on a specific object, image, sound etc. vs. open monitoring: attention is directed to the contents of one's moment to moment experience in a non-judgemental and nonreactive way 2. Yoga, transcendental meditation: primarily a focused attention approach 3. mindfulness meditation: open monitoring approach 4. loving-kindness meditation |
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Hypnosis |
- systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility - susceptibility: hypnotic ability is normally distributed --> associated traits: absorption, imaginative, rich-fantasy life |
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Facts/Falsehood of Hypnosis |
CAN DO: - alleviate pain - sensory distortions - treatment of hypertension, migraines, allergies CANNOT DO: - age regression/ regression into past lives - make people act against their will - recover lost memories |
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Theories of Hypnosis |
Role Enactment Theory: - hypnosis is a normal mental state in which suggestible people act out the role of a hypnotic subject Hypnosis as an altered state: - special state of consciousness - changes in brain activity Unification: - hypnosis = alterations in consciousness also influenced by role expectations |
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Alcohol |
Effects: slows down brain activity *binge drinking & uni students -BAC & driving - Violent Crime: rape & domestic abuse - chronic use: emotional, social, physical |
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Cannabis (Marijuana, THC, Hashish) |
- THC Effects: mild hallucinogen, amplifies senses, mild euphoria, relaxation Associated Problems: effects on memory and attention, accidents, lung disease, early on-sent psychosis - Cocaine Effects: powerful stimulant, activates rewards centres Associated Problems: addiction, mix with other drugs |
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MDMA (Ecstasy) |
- stimulant and hallucinogen Effects: euphoria, energy, emotional bonding and empathy Associated Problems: damage to serotonin pathways, longterm impairments in memory, mood, personality |
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Narcotics/Opiates (Heroin, Morphine, Oxycontin) |
- derived from opium - capable of relieving pain - heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycontin |
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Drug Dependance |
- substance taken in larger amounts than intended - desire and unsuccessful attempts to cut back - considerable time spent obtaining substance - inability to fulfill role obligations, curtailing important activities due to substance - withdrawal symptoms |
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Factors in Drug Abuse |
1) Biological predisposition - Genetic factors -> translates into fewer dopamine receptors -> predict who will be more likely to be addicted to alcohol, cocaine and heroin 2) Psychological - depression/anxiety - escape from painful self-awareness 3) Social - peers - family background |
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Brain waves |
Beta waves: normal waking thought Alpha waves: deep relaxation Theta waves: light sleep Delta waves: deep sleep |
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Insomnia |
- chronic problems in getting adequate sleep - most common - difficulty in falling asleep initially, difficulty in remaining asleep, persistent early morning awakenings - leads to daytime fatigue, impaired functioning, reduced productivity |
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Narcolepsy |
- sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods - go directly from wakefulness to REM sleep for a short period of time - seen in about 0.05% of people |
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Sleep Apnea |
- frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person - person stops breathing for a minimum of 10 seconds - accompanied by loud snoring |
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Nightmares |
anxiety arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep - mainly problem with children |
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Night Terrors |
abrupt awakening rom NREM sleep, accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feelings of panic - usually during Stage 4 sleep |
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Somnambulism (Sleep walking) |
occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep - tends to occur during first two hours of sleep in slow wave sleep (stage 3&4) - certain parts of brain appear to be awake while others show signs of being asleep |
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REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) |
potentially troublesome dream enactments during REM periods - cause appears to be deteriorations in brainstem structures that are normally responsible for immobilization during REM periods |
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Lucid Dreaming |
dreams in which people can think clearly about the circumstances of waking life and the fact that they are dreaming, yet they remain asleep in the midst of a vivid dream |
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Sedatives |
- sleep inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioural activity - sleeping pills |
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Stimulants (Amphetamines and cocaine) |
- drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioural activity |
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Hallucinogens (LSD, Mescaline, Psilocybin) |
- diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning, marked prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience |
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Learning |
any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience |
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Conditioning |
involves learning connections between events events that occur in an organism's environment |
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Classical Conditioning |
a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus |
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Psychic Reflexes |
Pavlov discovered how dogs would respond by salivating to a sound rather than the actual food presented. Sound started as a neutral stimulus, however Pavlov changed it by pairing it with a stimulus that did produce the salivation response. Demonstrated how learned associations were formed by events in an organism's environment. |
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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) |
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning |
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Unconditioned Response (UCR) |
An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. |
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. * tone is Pavlov's experiment |
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Conditioned Response (CR) |
A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. |
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Compensatory CR's |
Opponent responses - opposite reactions of normal effects of drugs - partially compensate for some drug effects. |
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Extinction |
Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency -- consistent presentation of conditioned stimulus alone, without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Spontaneous Recovery |
Reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus |
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Renewal Effect |
if a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place |
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Stimulus Generalization |
Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to a new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus |
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Little Albert |
Albert was a baby, initially unafraid of a live white rat, which was then paired with a loud startling noise. After 7 pairings the rat was established as a CS eliciting a fear response. 5 days later, Albert was exposed to similar stimuli as the rat, and found that Albert's fear response generalized to a variety of stimuli. |
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Stimulus Discrimination |
Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus - opposite of generalization |
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Higher Order Conditioning |
A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus |
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Sauce Bearnaise Syndrome |
- Seligman, a prominent psychologist, ate a steak with sauce bearnaise and 6 hours later developed the flu and had sever nausea - appeared to be classical conditioning, however violated some basic principles - discovered Conditioned Taste Aversion - Garcia argues it is a by-product of the evolutionary history of mammals (natural selection)
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Preparedness |
Involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others - evolution has programmed organisms to acquire certain fears more readily than others |
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Evolved Module for Fear Learning |
- Ohman and Mineka elaborated on theory of preparedness 1. Preferentially activated stimuli related to survival threats in evolutionary history 2. Automatically activated by these stimuli 3. Relatively resistant to conscious efforts to suppress resulting fears 4. Dependent on neural circuitry running through amygdala |
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Operant Conditioning |
A form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences. An organism "operates" on the environment instead of simply reacting to stimuli |
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Law of Effect |
- instrumental learning: emphasize that this type of responding is often instrumental in obtaining some desired outcome - Law of Effect: if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened |
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Reinforcement |
Occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response - a response is strengthened because it leads to rewarding consequences - defined after the fact in terms of its effect on behaviour, strengthening a response |
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Operant Chamber |
also known as Skinner Box A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled |
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Response Rate |
key dependant variable in most research on operant conditioning over time |
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Primary Reinforcers |
Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs - food, water, warmth, sex, affection |
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Secondary Reinforcers |
- conditioned Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers - money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise |
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Resistance to Extinction |
Occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated |
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Schedules of Reinforcement |
determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer |
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Continuous Reinforcement |
Occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced |
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Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement |
Occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time - organisms continue responding longer after removal of reinforcers when a response has been reinforced only SOME of the time |
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Fixed-Ratio Schedule |
the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses |
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Variable-Ratio Schedule |
the reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses |
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Fixed-Interval Schedule |
the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed |
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Variable-Interval Schedule |
the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed |
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Positive Reinforcement |
Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus - good grades, paycheques, attention |
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Negative Reinforcement |
Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal on an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus - still involves favourable outcome that strengthens a response tendency - strengthening takes places because a response leads to the removal of an aversive stimulus rather than arrival of a pleasant stimulus |
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Escape Learning |
An organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation |
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Avoidance Learning |
An organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring |
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Punishment |
Occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response - typically involves presentation of an aversive stimulus (spanking a child) - can also involve removal of rewarding stimulus (taking away privileges) |
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Latent Learning |
Learning that is not apparent from behaviour when it first occurs |
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Observational Learning |
Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models |
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Bandura Theory |
Observational learning involves being conditioned indirectly by virtue of observing another's conditioning - maintains that reinforcement influences performance rather than learning per se 4 key processes: 1. Attention - pay attention to another persons behaviour and its consequences 2. Retention - might not always use observed responses right away, so must be stored in memory 3. Reproduction - ability to reproduce response by converting stored mental images into overt behaviours 4. Motivation - depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe that the response is likely to pay off for you - Bobo Dolls Experiment: violence on TV related to aggression by children |
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Mirror Neurons |
Neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another person perform the same action |
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Encoding |
Involves forming a memory code - generally need to pay attention to information if you intend to remember it - selective attention is critical to everyday functioning --> screens out most potential stimuli while allowing a select few to pass through into conscious awareness |
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Cocktail Party Phenomenon |
Suggests that attention involves late selection, based on meaning of input |
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Levels of Processing |
Shallow Processing - Structural encoding: emphasizes the physical structure of stimulus - word written in capital letters, length of word Intermediate Processing - Phonemic encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like - naming or saying words Deep Processing - Semantic encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input - involves thinking about the objects and actions words represent |
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Enriching Encoding |
Elaboration: linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding - additional associations Visual Imagery: creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered - easier to form images of concrete objects rather than an abstract concept Dual Coding Theory: memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes Self-referent Encoding: involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant |
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Sensory Memory |
preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time - usually only a fraction of a second - gives additional time to try to recognize stimuli |
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Short Term Memory |
a limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to 20 seconds - engaging in rehearsal - process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information - helps maintain capacity of storage: limited in number of items it can hold - magic number: 7 plus or minus 2 - can increase capacity by chunking, combining stimuli into larger units |
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Working Memory |
A limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory and action - Working Memory Capacity: refers to one's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention |
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Long Term Memory |
unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time - Flashbulb Memories: unusually vivid and detailed recollections, however aren't always accurate - Clustering: tendency to remember similar or related items in groups - Conceptual Hierarchies: a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items - Schema: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience - Semantic Network: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts - Connectionist/Parallel Distributed Processing: assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected networks that resemble neural networks |
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Tip of the tongue Phenomenon |
Temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that its just out of your reach |
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Retrieval Cues |
memories can be jogged - stimuli can help gain access to memories - Encoding Specificity Principle: suggested your memory for information would be better when the conditions during encoding and retrieval were similar - Context Cues: often facilitate the retrieval of information |
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Misinformation Effect |
Occurs when participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post event information |
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Reality Monitoring |
refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one's perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one's thoughts and imaginations) |
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Source Monitoring |
Involves making attributions about the origins of memories - Source monitoring error: occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source |
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Destination Memory |
involves recalling to whom one has told what |
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Measures of Forgetting |
Retention: refers to the proportion of material retained 3 principle methods used to measure forgetting: - Recall: requires subjects to reproduce information without any cues - Recognition: requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options - Relearning: requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before |
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Ineffective Encoding |
Information which may have never been inserted into memory (Pseudo-forgetting) |
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Decay Theory |
Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time |
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Interference Theory |
Proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material - Retroactive Interference: occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information - Proactive Interference: occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information |
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Retrieval Failure |
- Encoding Specificity Principle: States that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code - Transfer- appropriate Processing: occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention - Motivated Forgetting: tendency to forget thing's one doesn't want to think about |
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Seven Sins of Memory |
1. Transience: simple weakening of a memory over time 2. Absentmindedness: refers to a memory failure that is often due to failure to pay attention 3. Blocking: often temporary problem that occurs when we fail to retrieve an item of information 4. Misattribution: assign a memory to the wrong source 5. Suggestibility: memory is distorted 6. Bias: inaccuracy due to effect of current knowledge 7. Persistence: unwanted memories that you cannot forget |
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Neural Physiology of Memory |
- memory formations results in alterations in synaptic transmission - specific memories may depend on localized neural circuits - Long-term potentiation: long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway |
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Retrograde Amnesia |
involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia |
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Anterograde Amnesia |
involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia - H.M.: surgery accidentally wiped his ability to form long-term memories - no recollection of things happening other than the most recent 20-30 seconds |
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Consolidation of Memories |
Hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long term memory |
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Implicit Memory |
apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering - mostly perceptual and motor skills - storage takes place in cerebellum - unconscious or unintentional recollection |
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Explicit Memory |
involves intentional recollection of previous experiences - facts and events - storage takes place in hippocampus and temporal lobe - conscious and deliberate recollection |
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Declarative Memory System |
handles factual information - recollection of words, definitions, names, dates etc. - depends on conscious effortful processes |
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Procedural Memory System |
houses memory for actions, skills, operations and conditioned responses - procedural skills, riding a bike, tying shoe laces - largely automatic |
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Episodic Memory System |
- division of declarative made up of a chronological or temporally dated recollections of personal experiences - like an autobiography |
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Semantic Memory System |
- division of declarative contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned - like an encyclopedia |
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Prospective Memory |
involves remembering to perform actions in the future - remembering to walk a dog, call someone etc. |
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Retrospective Memory |
involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information - reminisce of high school days, try to recall what a professor said in class |
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Types of Problems |
1. Problems of inducing structure: require people to discover the relationships among numbers, words, symbols, ideas 2. Problems of arrangement: require people to arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion 3. Problems of transformation: require people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a goal |
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Barriers to Problem Solving |
- Irrelevant Information - Functional Fixedness: tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use - Mental Set: when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past |
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Approaches to Problem Solving |
- Problem Space: refers to set of possible pathways to a solution - Trial and Error - Algorithm: methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution - Heuristic: a guiding principle used in solving problems or making decisions - Incubation Effect: occurs when new solutions surface after a period of not consciously thinking about problem |
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Heuristics |
can selectively narrow problem space, but doesn't guarantee success - Forming subgoals - Workings backward - searching for analogies - changing the representation of problem |
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Field dependence-independence |
refers to individuals tendency to rely primarily on external or internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space - field dependent: rely on external frames, tend to be from more sedentary agricultural cultures and cultures that emphasize conformity - field independent: rely on internal frames, people from western and nomadic cultures |
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Holistic Cognitive Style |
People from East Asian cultures focus on context and relationships among elements in a field |
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Analytic Cognitive Style |
People from western cultures focus on objects and their properties rather than context |
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Choices about preference |
- Additive Strategy: list attributes that influence decision, rate the desirability, add up ratings and select largest total - Elimination by aspects: gradually eliminating less attractive alternatives |
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Availability Heuristic |
involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event |
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Conjunction Fallacy |
occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone - probability of being in a subcategory cannot be higher than the probability of being in the broader category |
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Framing |
refers to how decision issues are posed or how choices are structured - influenced by how a question is asked |
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Systems of thought |
System 1: thinking fast, automatic, little effort, no control System 2: thinking slow, under our control, more effortful, derive our sense of choice, deliberation, concentration etc. |
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Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (IQ) |
IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100 |
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) |
- formalized the computation of separate scores for verbal IQ, performance IQ, and full-scale (total) IQ - new scoring scheme based on the normal distribution - no longer based on an actual quotient |
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General Factor Theory |
Intelligence is a unitary attribute Spearmen "g" factor general ability that underlies specific skills |
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Sternberg's Model |
1. Academic: ability to think abstractly, process information effectively, assessed through IQ tests 2. Creative: ability to formulate new ideas, combine seemingly unrelated facts or information, mildly related to IQ 3. Practical: ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions and to shape the environment so as to maximize one's strengths and compensate for one's weaknesses, street smarts |
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Gardner's 8 Intelligences |
- logical-mathematical - linguistic - musical - spatial - bodily-kinesthetic - interpersonal - intrapersonal - naturalist |
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Emotional Intelligence (EQ) |
important component of success in life self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, people skills, motivation, predicts work performance better than IQ |
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The Normal Distribution |
a symmetric, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in population. - standard deviation = 15 - mean of distribution IQ score = 100 (average) - 115-130 = Superior - 130-145 = Gifted - 70-85 = Borderline - 55-70 = retarded |
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Ways to Remember |
- rehearsal - distributed practice - minimize interference - acrostics and acronyms - rhymes - narrative method - link method - method of loci - keyword method |
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why we forget |
people cant retrieve needed information |
