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133 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Consciousness
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One's subjective experience of the world, resulting from brain activity
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Interpreter
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A term specific to the left hemisphere's attempts to make sense of actions and ongoing events
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circadian rythms
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the regulation of biological cycles into regular patterns (not only sleep/wake although this is an example)
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Pineal Gland and the Sleep/Wake cycle
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Changes in light register in the superchiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. In response, this region signals the pineal gland when time has for sleep or the time for wakefulness has come. (Pineal Gland secretes melatonin)
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SLEEPLESS
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gene regulates a protein that, like many anesthetics, reduces action potentials in the brain. Loss of this protein leads to 80% reduction of sleep
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Brain Activity during Sleep
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Using an EEG, researchers measured these examples of the patterns of electrical brain activity during the different stages of normal sleep.
Alert wakefulness: Beta waves Just before sleep: Alpha waves Stage 1: Theta waves Stage 2: Theta waves with Sleep spindle (Burst of activity) / K-Complex (shut out the external world and keep people asleep) Stage 3/4: Delta Waves REM: Beta waves |
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REM sleep
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the stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, dreaming and paralysis of motor systems
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Insomnia
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A disorder characterized by an inability to sleep
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Stages of sleep
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Move through the stages of sleep, 1-2-slow wave-2-1-REM and repeat, as the night goes on you do not go into as deep a sleep, dream more.
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Obstructive sleep apnea
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a disorder in which a person, while asleep, stops breathing because his or her throat closes; the condition results in frequent awakenings during the night
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Narcolepsy
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A sleep disorder in which people experience excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours, sometimes going limp and collapsing
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REM behavior disorder
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normal paralysis that accompanies REM sleep is disabled. Sufferers act out their dreams while sleeping, often striking their sleeping partners.
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Somnambulism
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sleepwalking
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Restoration theory
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sleep allows the body, including the brain, to rest and repair itself.
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circadian rhythm theory
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sleep has evolved to keep animals quiet and inactive during the times of the day when there is greatest danger, usually when it is dark.
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Facilitation of Learning
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sleep is important because it is involved in the strengthening of neural connection that serve as the basis of learning.
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dreams
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Products of an altered state of consciousness in which images and fantasies are confused with reality
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manifest content
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According to Sigmund Freud, the plot of a dream; the way a dream is remembered
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latent content
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According to Sigmund Freud, what a dream symbolizes; the material that is disguised in a dream to protect the dreamer from confront directly
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Activation-Synthesis theory
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A theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories.
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Brain regions and REM dreams
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The motor cortex, the brain stem, and visual association areas are activated during REM, as are brain regions involved in motivation, emotion, and reward (e.g. the amygdala). The prefrontal cortex is deactivated. Other visual areas are activated as well
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Evolved Threat-Rehearsal Theory
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dreams sometimes simulate threatening events so that people can rehearse strategies for coping.
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Moods
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diffuse, long-lasting emotional states
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Emotion
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feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs.
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Primary Emotions
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Emotions that are evolutionarily adaptive, shared across cultures, and associated with specific physical states; they include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and possibly surprise and contempt.
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Secondary emotions
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Blends of primary emotions; they include remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation.
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Arousal
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Physiological activation (such as increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses (such as increased heart rate, sweating or muscle tension).
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Circumplex model
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emotions arranged in circle
Valence: positive or negative Arousal: physiological activation |
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James-Lange Theory of Emotion
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According to this theory, bodily perception comes before the feeling of emotion. For example, when a grizzly bear threatens you, you begin to sweat, experience a pounding heart, and run (if you can). These responses generate in you the emotion of fear.
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis
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According to this hypothesis, a person's facial expression triggers that person's experience of emotion. Even the forced alteration of a persons facial expression can change that person's experience of emotion.
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Canon-Bard Theory of Emotion
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According to this theory, emotion and physical reaction happen together. For example, when a grizzly bear threatens you, you simultaneously feel afraid, begin to sweat, experience a pounding heart, and run (if you can).
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The Emotional Brain
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(a) The two most important brain structures for precessing emotion are the amygdala nd prefrontal cortex.
(b) when sensory information reaches the thalamus, it can take two paths. The fast path (SI --> thalamus --> amygdala --> response) and the slow path (SI --> Thalamus --> Cortex --> Amygdala --> response). The fast path and the slow path enable us to assess and respond to emotion producing stimuli in different ways. |
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Cerebral Asymmetry
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Some evidence suggests that the left and right frontal lobes are affected by different emotions. (greater association in right associated with negative affect, left with positive.)
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Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory (1962)
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According to this theory, a person experiences physiological changes, applies a cognitive label to explain those changes, and translate that label into an emotion . For example, when a grizzly bear threatens you, you begin to sweat, experience a pounding heart, and run (if you can). You then label those bodily reactions as responses to the bear. As a result, you know you are experiencing fear.
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Misattribution of Arousal
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When people misidentify the source of their arousal.
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Excitation transfer
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residual physiological arousal caused by one event is transferred to a new stimulus.
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Regulation of emotional states
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Humor
Though Suppression and Rumination Distraction |
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Display Rules
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Rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable to given situations
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Emotions in Decision Making
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We anticipate our future emotional states, which then serve as a source of information and a guide in decision making.
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Analogical Representations and Physiological Representations
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Analogical representations, such as an illustration of a violin, have some characteristics of the objects they represent.
Symbolic Representations, such as the word violin, are abstract and do not have relationships to the objects |
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Cognition
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Mental Activity that includes thinking and understandings that result from thinking.
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Thinking
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The mental manipulation of representations of information (i.e., of objects we encounter in our environments.
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Concept
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A mental representation that groups or categorizes objects, events, or relations around common themes.
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defining attribute model
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A way of thinking about concepts: A category is characterized by a list of features that determine if an object is a member of the category.
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Categorization
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We group objects into categories according to the objects' shared properties.
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Prototype model
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A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example–a prototype–for that category.
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Exemplar model
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A way of thinking about concepts: All members of a category are examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership.
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Stereotypes
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Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.
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Reasoning
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Using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable.
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Decision making
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Attempting to select the best alternative among several options.
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Problem solving
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Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal
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Deductive Reasoning
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Using general rules to draw conclusions about specific instances
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Inductive reasoning
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Using specific instances to draw conclusions about general rules
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Normative models and Descriptive models
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Normative models of decision making view people as optimal decision makers
According to descriptive models, we tend to misinterpret and misrepresent the probabilities underlying many decision making scenarios. Even when we understand the probabilities, we have the potential to make irrational decisions |
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Expected Utility Theory
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One normative model of how we should make decisions. According to this theory, we make decisions by considering the possible alternatives and choosing the most desirable one.
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Heuristics
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Shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions.
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Framing
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The effect of presentation on how information is perceived.
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Availability heuristic
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Making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
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Representativeness heuristic
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Placing a person or object in a category if that person or object is similar to one's prototype for that category.
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Prospect Theory
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1) A person's wealth affects his or her choices
2) Because losses feel much worse than gains feel goos, a person will try to avoid situations that involve losses. (Loss aversion) |
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Psychological Reactance
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When we are told what to do and what not to do, we react by wanting to do exactly what is forbidden to us.
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Insight
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The sudden realization of a solution to a problem.
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Restructuring
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A new way of thinking about a problem that aids in its solution
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Mental sets
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Problem solving strategies that have worked in the past.
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Intelligence
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The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges.
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Mental Age
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An assessment of a child's intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child's test score with the average score for children of each chronological age.
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Intelligence quotient (IQ)
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An index of intelligence computed by dividing a child's estimated mental age by the child's chronological age, then multiplying this number by 100
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General intelligence (g)
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The idea that one general factor underlies intelligence
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Fluid Intelligence
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Intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, particularly in novel or complex circumstances.
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Crystallized intelligence
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Intelligence that reflects both the knowledge one acquires through experience and the ability to use that knowledge.
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Multiple Intelligence
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The idea that there are different types of intelligence that are independent of one another. (ex: Sternberg's 3 forms of intelligence: Analytical, Creative and Practical).
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Emotional Intelligence (EI)
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A form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action.
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Stereotype threat
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Apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's own group.
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Memory
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The nervous system's capacity to acquire and retain skills and knowledge.
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Encoding
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The Processing of Information so that it can be stored.
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Storage
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The retention of encoded representations over time.
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Retrieval
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The act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed
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Consolidation
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A process by which immediate memories become long lasting (or long-term) memories.
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Brain regions associated with memory
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Prefrontal Cortex: Working Memory
Temporal Lobe: Declarative memory Amygdala: Fear Learning Hippocampus: Spatial Memory Cerebellum: Motor action learning and memory |
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Engram
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the physical site of memory storage; the place where memory "lives"
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Equipotentiality
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Memory is distributed throughout the brain, rather than confined to any specific location.
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Memory Circuits
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"Neurons that fire together, wire together"
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Reconsolidation
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Neural processes involved when memories are recalled and then stored again for later retrieval.
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Parallel Processing
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Processing multiple types of information at the same time.
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Visual Search Fields
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Developed by Treisman, participants search for "targets" in a field of "distractions"
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Selective Attention
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Our ability to pay attention to a select set of stimuli, ignoring others.
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Change Blindness
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A failure to notice large changes in one's environment.
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Sensory Memory
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A memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form.
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Short-Term Memory
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A memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness
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Working Memory
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An active processing system that keeps different types of information available for current use.
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Updating working memory
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retrieval, transformation, and substitution.
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chunking
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Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.
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Long-Term Memory
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The relatively permanent storage of information
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Serial position effect
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Items presented early or late in the list were remembered better than those in the middle.
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Primacy Effect
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The better memory people have for items presented at the beginning of the list.
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Recency Effect
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the better memory people have for the most recent items, the ones at the end of the list.
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Encoding
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Visual Encoding: What the word looks like
Acoustic: How the word sounds Semantic: What the word means |
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Schemas
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Cognitive Structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information.
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A Network of Associations
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In this semantic network, similar concepts are connected through their associations.
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Retrieval Cue
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Anything that helps a person (or a non-human animal) recall information stored in long-term memory.
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Encoding Specificity Principle
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The idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger memory for the experience.
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Spreading activation models of memory
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Stimuli in working memory activate specific nodes in long-term memory. This activation increases the ease of access to that material and thus makes retrieval easier.
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context-dependent memory
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memory enhancement resulting from the recall situation being similar to the encoding situation.
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State-dependent memory
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when a person's internal states match during encoding and recall, memory can be enhanced.
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mnemonics
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learning aids, strategies, and devices that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues.
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Implicit memory
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The system underlying unconscious memories.
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Explicit Memory
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The system underlying conscious memories.
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Declarative Memory
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The cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory, knowledge that can be declared.
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Episodic Memory
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Memory for one's personal past experiences
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Semantic Memory
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Memory for knowledge about the world
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Procedural Memory
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A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits.
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Prospective Memory
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Remembering to do something at some future time
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False fame effect
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Identifying a name as belonging to a famous person because you recognize that you have encountered the name previously, but cannot identify where.
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Seven Sins of Memory
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Transience
Blocking Absentmindedness Persistence Misattribution Bias Suggestibility |
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Forgetting
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The inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage
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Transience
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Forgetting over time
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Proactive interference
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When prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information
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Retroactive interference
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When new information inhibits the ability to remember old information
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Blocking
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The temporary inability to remember something that is known.
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Absentmindedness
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The inattentive or shallow encoding of events.
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Amnesia
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A deficit in long-term memory, resulting from disease, brain injury, or trauma, in which the individual loses the ability to retrieve vast quantities of information from long term memory.
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Retrograde Amneisia
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A condition in which people lose past memories, such as memories for events, facts, people or even personal information.
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Anterograde Amnesia
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A condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories.
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Persistence
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The continual occurrence of unwanted memories.
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Memory Bias
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The challenging of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes.
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Flashbulb memories
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Vivid episodic memories for the circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event.
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von Restorff effect
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a distinctive event might be recalled more easily than a trivial event, however inaccurate the result.
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Source Misattribution
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Memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory.
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Source Amnesia
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A type of amnesia that occurs when a person shows memory for an even but cannot remember where he or she encountered the information.
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Cryptomnesia
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A type of misattribution that occurs when a person thinks he or she has come up with a new idea, yet has only retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute that idea to its proper source.
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Suggestibility
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The development of biased memories from misleading information.
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Confabulation
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The unintended false recollection of episodic memories.
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Capgras syndrome
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People with Capgras believe that their family members have been replaced with impostors.
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