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99 Cards in this Set
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empiricism |
philosophical position that emphasises the importance of experience, observation and learning (in the acquisition of knowledge) |
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Francis Bacon |
Great herald of the empirical spirit first to emphasise methodological unity of the sciences first to advocate scientific education and see the benefits derived from scientific discovery interested in communication of scientific results, believed researchers should choose substance over style used an inductive method with focus on observation/data collection |
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Bacon & his list of Idols |
idols = common sources of error that lead us astray in our quest for knowledge 1) idols of the tribe: weaknesses in human nature 2) idols of the cave: prejudices, as well as old theories/explanations 3) idols of the marketplace: temptation to believe that mere naming of a thing explains it (nominal fallacy --> constant reexamination of definitions & classifications) 4) idols of the theatre: authority |
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Metaphor of F. Bacon's positive approach to science |
some people: like ants: collect & use materials some people: like spiders, spin webs from their own substance between those: the BEE who gathers, but also transforms and digests materials in community activity --> he advocated for this way = "new inductivism" (demands reform of human understanding by grounding it only in experience) |
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1) Bacon's 2 rules before starting an inquiry 2) Bacons major emphasis was on: |
1) lay aside received opinions & refrain from generalisation 2) massive/extensive data collection |
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John Locke |
most widely influential English speaking philosopher
he launched the inquiry into an empirical theory of knowledge
"at birth the mind is white as paper, void of any characters, without any ideas"= "tabula rasa"
social responsibility is enhanced, while individual responsibility is diminished (democratization of the mind) |
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John Locke: primary and secondary qualities |
primary qualities: reside in an object and are independent of perception (i.e. extension, figure, mobility, solidity) secondary qualities: dependent on the perceptions of the observer (i.e. colour, sound, warmth, taste) If a quality can be substracted from the object without destroying its identity, it is secondary. |
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George Berkeley |
extended Locke's empirical philoshophy his empiricism was radical (Hume's even more so) thought it unsensical to distinguish between primary & secondary qualities because it is absurd to ask what the world is like without experience. So secondary qualities are really primary ones. the only real world is the world of experience, or the world of the mind |
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Solipsism |
philosophical position of extreme subjectivism which holds that only knowledge of ones own mind is possible |
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David Hume |
VERY radical empiricist "a treatise of human nature: 3 parts: knowledge, passions, morals. Causality = a psychological problem. It is what we see and what we attribute to things, it is not "real" mental life = not verified through reason. Only impressions or ideas (fainter images of impressions) personal identity = constructed out of the ways we organize the entries/gaps in our experience. all emotions are founded on pleasure & pain |
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Which philosophers let to an intellectual "crisis" |
Hume (18th and early 19th century) Montaigne (17th century) |
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Condillac |
task of philosophy is not to study the nature of the mind, but instead how the mind works. Wanted to a mental science that would make a difference in people's lives. interested in genetic basis of knowledge & in language Biggest contribution to psych: made empiricism more practical & psychological |
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Helvetius |
early version of radical behaviourism emphasized the Lockean white paper hypothesis to the point of denying all inborn capacities humans are controlled by society's system of reward and punishment |
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David Hartley |
founder of modern associationism one of the first to classify the varieties of pleasure and pain extended Newton's idea that vibrations in nerve fibers transmit sensory info to he brain memories = based on vibrations that fade unless they get activated by the appropriate conditions |
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Jeremy Bentham |
called for massive reforms in jurisprudence & legal philosophy
advocated a more empirical & objective basis for legal decisions . Punishment should be based on the social consequences of the crime.
utilitarianism: actions should be judged in terms of social consequences
goal of punishment = protect society & reform the offender
believed in "psychological hedonism": people seek pleasure & avoid pain |
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Mary Wollstonecraft |
early pioneer in battle for emancipation of women said white paper hypothesis suggests that gender differences may be due to education. wrote "a vindication of the rights of women", = first feminist manifesto believed that social change would benefit everyone, including men |
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Essentialism |
how gender differences used to be explained differences are inherent and natural and not due to the environment |
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James Mill |
mechanistic approach to mental processes beliefs, memories, expectancies = due to associations & conditioning advocated for education for the masses |
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John Stuart Mill |
one of the great liberal thinkers of 19th century argued for freedom of expression, representative government, importance of the individual. Also supported emancipation of women. coined term "utilitarian" to describe 19th century liberal thought central themes: association & pleasure-principle ethology: science of character formation embraced concept of an applied & basic psychology |
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Contributions of empiricism |
1) new methodology 2) emphasis on learning & education 3) study of children (Locke) 4) study of the senses (Berkeley & Condillac) 5) study of motivation & emotion (Hartley, Bentham, Hume) 6) challenged stereotypes of women (John Stuart Mill, Mary Wollstonecraft) 7) causality (Hume) |
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Differences between rationalism & empiricism |
rationalism: a priori knowledge (reason is source of knowledge) empiricism: knowledge comes from experience
rationalism: mind is active empiricism: mind is passive
rationalism: deductive reasoning (general to specific) empiricism: inductive reasoning (specific to general)
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Rationalism: a priori knowledge |
statements like "all bachelors are unmarried" are understood as necessarily true. The self-evident nature is grasped on a a priori basis, which can form the basis of knowledge |
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Deductive vs. inductive arguments |
deductive: the premises are claimed to provide definitive ground for the conclusion. inductive: given the premises, the conclusion is more likely than not (reason from samples to population) |
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Rene Descartes |
rationalist, with reason as the means to get knowledge founder of modern philosophy & key figure in modern rationalism rebelled against skepticism cogito ergo sum: I think, therefor I am. his method was modeled on mathematics |
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Baruch Spinoza |
spoke out against taditional Jewish beliefs etc. --> controversy reason produces good people dualism of soul & body --> leaves room for free will. But animals = automata. Mind & body are 2 aspects of the same fundamental reality. No unconditional free will, but freedom via knowledge of nature's laws. believed that God is all things (pantheistic view), thus any distinction between sacred and secular is false. |
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Leibniz |
Leipniz & Newton = independent inventors of differential calculus first to develop a calculating machine his work = quest for world's unity enjoyed many honors in his lifetime (unlike Spinoza) adopted the term "monad" denied Descartes interactionism |
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monad |
= a principle of existance or an ultimate unit of being for Leipniz = a unity with the entire universe |
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Monadology |
Leipniz universe was created with "pre-established harmony" of its individual parts: Mind & body are 2 clocks, set for the same time. Although synchronized neither depends on the other one to function. Psychophysical Parallelism: very monad brings sum of the universe with it. Diversity within unity. Synchronicity of monads reflects divine order (God = the great clock maker) If god is omnibenevolent (all-loving), our world must be the best of all worlds. petites perceptions: we are unaware of them but together they form the basis of perception argued that nature functions on law of continuity |
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Uniformitarianism |
change is gradual and occurs over long periods of time |
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Christian von Wolff |
One of the first to use term psychology in major publication psychology should study the powers of the soul use of reason in the study of the soul |
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Immanuel Kant |
rationalist, but more like a consolidating figure between empiricism & rationalism believed that knowledge begings with experience (empiricism) but believed that sensory info is "filtered" by a priori considerations (rationalism) self experience & ordering principles of the mind come together to form knowledge ordering principles = filters = "categories of understanding" (like time, space, causality) "analytic a priori knowledge" = formal truths in which a predicate completely unpacks the subject: all bachelors are unmarried Kant hoped to establish "synthetic a priori knowledge" that is not trivial but informative: I think therefore I am differentiated between noumenal world & the phenomenal world Kant regarded mind as active (=rationalism) (in contrast to Locke) |
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define Kant's: 1) noumenal world 2) phenomenal world |
1) noumenal world = the world as it is, independent of perception 2) phenomenal world = the world as it appears to us in experience |
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Kant's theory of moral development |
humans are caught in tensions between heteronomy and autonomy. heteronomy = government from the outside, goodness based on authority/rules etc. autonomy = self-government, will & ability to act in moral manner also: if you see others as means to an end :( if you see others as an end :) |
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Herbart |
interests: clinical & educational problems, quantification of mental functions, unconscious. critical pioneer in educational & mathematical psychology (+ in Germany: originator of social psychology) goal of education = 1) building the "apperceptive mass" (=complex mental operations). Apperceptions set humans apart from animals. 2) moral development |
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Thomas Reid |
bridged extremes of empiricism & rationalism with "commonsense philosophy" commonsense = opposition to beliefs that are counterintuitive there are "innate principles of the mind" leading to convictions that we call common sense or "natural necessities". We have sensations, but not out of choice or opinion but because of a natural necessity. why is the smell of a rose more vivid in reality than in memory? --> experience contributes to belief in the external world "First principles" = a number of propositions, promoting/restoring faith in the external world, a real self & a belief in causality (through experience & common sense) |
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Curiosity |
complete reversal in attitudes: for centuries: regarded as intellectual vice, mark of foolish pride, affront to god. during the times of empiricism & rationalism, climate of opinion shifted: public was hungry on fresh perspective to old questions. In time, curiosity & wonder were celebrated as virtues & hallmarks of human thought |
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Contributions of rationalism |
1) new methodology (Descartes) 2) Concept of the "threshold" (Leipniz & Herbart) 3) --> subconscious & unconscious 4) emphasis on lawfulness of psychological processes --> science of psychology. Also naturalistic approach (anti demonism) (Spinoza) 5) earliest treatises with specific psychological content (i.e. Christian Wolff) 6) pioneers in educational & mathematical psychology (Herbart) 7) broad vision of the world of experience: included intuition & a priori processes |
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Helmholtz |
measured speed of conduction of a nervous impulse --> stimulated optimism about a science of human nature |
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Hobbes |
psychology should involve numerical comparisons adored the mechanical model controversy: spoke out against biblical literalism, excessive reliance on authority & authority of the pope "Phantasms" (=ideas) result from motions in the brain |
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Epistemologically, what does Hobbes's work represent? |
origin of knowledge = in sensory impressions (=empirical) BUT he also said that experience alone is incapable of establishing anything of a universal nature Bacons radical empiricism = opposite of Hobbes's rationalism Actually Hobbes's work presents a mix of empiricism, rationalism & nominalism (we begin with sensory knowledge, and then reason establishes order) He was also a materialist (whatever exists must have a material nature, including God) |
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Hobbes's theism: |
Hobbes was a materialist (whatever exists must have a material nature, including God) Hobbes's theism: A material god = the first case (might set in motion the rest of material reality). but after that: not much more work for God |
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Hobbes on human nature: |
psychological processes depend on a physical substrate (inspired by Harvey's physiology (blood circulation) & Galilean centrality of motion) powerful drives toward self-interest & self-preservation warned that without "civil state" there is danger of war of everyone against everyone. "Civil state" enables invention, industry, art, culture, knowledge. Without it life would be "solitary, poor, brutish & short" |
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Descartes & Movement |
like Hobbes, also obsessed with movement but did more than philosophical inquiry most of his theories were wrong, but stimulated other researchers Statue in Paris, powered by hydraulic forces inspired his "theory of bodily movement" believed that many human (involuntary movement!) & all animal movements are mechanical & non reflective body = a machine believed God had united this machine with a (rational) soul (situated in the pineal gland) Also erroneously believed animals have no pineal glands soul is tied to the body and not completely autonomous. |
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Descartes "theory of bodily movement" |
nerve fibers = filled with fluids that activate muscles & tendons (=like water pipes) the fluids = "animal spirits" when the fluid arrives at muscles, it blows it up like a balloon which makes the limb move believed the fibers were innovated by small threads, which when activated, triggered valves (connected to the nerve fibers) in the ventricles of brain to open. The "animal spirits" stored in the ventricles were then released to move through the nerves. |
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Jan Swammerdam |
conducted first tests of Descartes "theory of bodily movement". showed that a muscle with an attached nerve from a frog's leg will continue to twitch even when separated from the body --> rules out ventricles as home of spirits Also proved that muscle contracts even when some of its fibers are damaged --> rules out animal spirits (these would escape through the cuts and fail to inflate the muscle) Also proved that muscles don't inflate: put frog muscle in a glass syringe, made it contract/relax, and observed the movement of a drop of water in the end of the syringe. When the muscle contracted the water drop, didn't ascend, it didn't move (and even descended)! This indicated that the muscle did not expand Concluded that a simple irritation of the nerve is enough to produce muscular motion, and that no bulk flows from nerves to muscles. |
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Niels Stensen |
exposed some of Descartes anatomical errors pineal gland: animals have pineal glands, pineal gland cannot lean from side to side & is not richly supplied with nerves (so no higher cognitive functions) (Descartes thought the gland would lean from side to side to disperse the spirits to different brain regions to find what it is we want to remember) called for a more empirical science of anatomy |
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Stephen Hales |
First to demonstrate spinal reflex decapitated a frog and found that by pricking its skin, the frog would hop (reflex movements) = spinal reflex he also found that this effect disappears if the spinal cord is completely destroyed. he showed that reflexes ca be carried out without the brain but not without the spinal cord |
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Robert Whytt |
most accomplished neurophysiologist of his day looked at hales experiment (frog decapitated --> spinal reflex) with more scrutiny. Led to idea that movement originates in the intensity of the stimulus that excites nervous activity Introduced terms: "stimulus" & "response" conducted early studies of anorexia & bulimia first to systematically describe person with multiple sclerosis |
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Johann August Unzer |
popularized concept of "reflex" first to employ "reflex" in connection with sensory motor reactions. introduced terms "afferent" (moving inward toward CNS) and "efferent" (moving outward toward muscles) believed that the experience of pain depends on brain activity. Thus any movements following decapitation are purely mechanical. (Guillotine (beheading) machine, after some bodies would convulse. People wondered if related to pain?) |
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Julien De La Mettrie |
one of the most important materialists of 18th century deterministic, evolutionary & mechanistic viewpoint that created outrage even in liberal Holland argued that mental events depend on bodily ones. Observed that his own clarity of mind = related to body temp. failed to find qualitative gap between humans & animals believed that notions like sin, evil, vice and virtue must be replace with more scientific concepts |
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Pierre Jean George Cabanis |
psychology must be understood in naturalistic context connections between external environments and behaviour |
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Bell-Magendie Law |
Charles Bell & Francois Magendie showed that the ventral/anterior roots of the spinal column influence muscular contraction. Bell's initial experiment established only the motor functions of the ventral root. Magendie's experiments additionally established the sensory functions of the dorsal/posterior root |
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Johannes Muller |
best remembered for massive "Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen" which became standard reference work for physiologists across Europe. Suffered from depression. Proposed "law of specific nerve energies" (= for each of the 5 senses, there is a specific nerve energy. A nerve is capable of transmitting only one kind of sensation.) |
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Influence of Muller's doctrine of specific nerve energies in 19th century |
--> suggested that the sense organs conditioned knowledge. The nerves are intermediates between perceived objects and the mind. Thus they impose their own characteristics upon the mind. --> primary colours possess 3 different optical fibers --> each sense quality is associated with specific nerves --> radical isolation of the senses from each other. Helmholtz: no meaningful transitions between senses can be possible |
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Franz Joseph Gall |
most extreme psychological theory: "localization of function" --> different brain regions correspond to different brain functions. faculties = personal & intelligence traits His "doctrine of the skull" insisted that indentations & protrusions reveal our strengths and weaknesses --> career counselling |
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Kasper Spurzheim |
made elaborate charts to guide assessment of intellectual & personality traits based on shape of the head. coined term: "phrenology". Very controversial but became a cultural phenomenon. In 20th century it was branded as "pseudoscience" |
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Phrenology's influence |
1) example of a productive false start 2) mobilised other scientists to investigate the localisation of function 3) helped shape public opinion regarding role of brain in intellect & personality. 4) contributed to opinion that there could be a science of human nature |
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Pierre Flourens |
delivered credible evidence against phrenology used surgical method "ablation" (removing a brain structure to determine its function) although he found some localization, he disagreed with phrenologists and agued the brain functions as a whole . Brain = interconnected network of activity showed that brain can show plasticity (some select regions can take over functions of damaged regions) discovered anesthetic qualities of chloroform |
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Paul Broca |
showed that there IS some localised function in the brain founder of modern physical anthropology Met patient that was locked up for 30 years. He was not psychotic but could only speak one word: "tan" but his comprehension was fine. Autopsy revealed a fluid-filled cavity in left frontal lobe. Broca concluded this region (left frontal) = big role in speech production. Today called "Broca's area". Damage to it produces "expressive aphasia" (loss of articulate speech). |
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Frisch & Hitzig |
elaborated on electrical stimulation of the cortex established field of "electrophysiology" = breakthrough in understanding of localisation of function showed that small electrical currents applied to a specific region on a dog's cortex, produced reliable movements on the opposite site to the stimulation. --> in favour of localisation but did not support phrenology |
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Golgi & Cajal |
Golgi: staining procedure: "Golgi Stain" --> revealed anatomy of nerve cells (neurons) Cajal: first to use & refine Golgi's staining method. Discovered anatomical gap between neurons, and understood transmission proceeds from synapse to axon. (Central figure in modern theory of neuron) |
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Sherrington |
published monumental work: "Integrative Actions of the Nervous System" has been called "Principia of Physiology" (compared to Newton's Principia for Physics) coined terms: synapse, proprioceptive, neuron pool, neuron threshold etc. Mapped variety of neural pathways & investigated reflexes. |
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proprioceptor (Sherrington) |
A sensory receptor that detects motion, position and equilibrium of the body (or a limb) by responding to stimuli (motion etc.) arising WITHIN the organism. a receptor that detects info in the interior of the muscles |
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Speed of nervous impulse |
1) Descartes: animal spirits: speed of light 2) Muller: too fast, unmeasurable 3) Helmholtz (Muller's student): recorded time lag between stimulation & muscle contraction. Then recorded difference between stimulating the nerve far from the muscle vs. near to the muscle. Rate was surprisingly slow! 19th century: optimism & faith in quantitative methods of science |
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Measuring behaviour: origin of statistics |
Blaise Pascal & Galileo: pioneers in modern probability theory De Moivre, Laplace, Gauss: bell-shaped curve (normal curve) Other important names: Quetelet, Galton, Nightingale & Dix Increased use of social stats in 19th century --> discovery of regularities in human behaviour --> acceptance of possibility of a "science of psychology" |
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Jaques Quetelet |
one of the most underestimated figures in history of psychology interested in orderliness between variables (i.e. age & criminal activity) suggested causal link between illiteracy & criminal activity found that many physical but also psychological qualities are distributed on the bell-shaped curve concept of "homme moyen": average man. There is a "central type" in every population & variation around it is lawful. advanced idea that behaviour could be measured |
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Sir Francis Galton |
legendary intellect & restless curiosity, Darwin's cousin interested in weather, & scientific instrumentation pioneer in use of fingerprints as identification controversy: "Statistical inquiries into the Efficacy of Prayer" (no difference in life span between people who pray and people who don't) Galton was crucial to transform psychology from a normative science, into a functional science of behaviour independent of philosophy. most important discoveries: regression & correlation (interest in heredity). Used scattergrams. First to use terms: "co-relation" (now: correlation), "median", "percentile" |
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1) Florence Nightingale 2) Dorothea Dix |
1) A nurse. Called for reforms in medical record keeping. Showed that disease and poor sanitary conditions produced more deaths among soldiers than the enemy. She was among the first to use graphs to illustrate her arguments. 2) Admired Nightingale. Used descriptive social statistics to improve treatment-environment for the mentally-ill. Presented tabular info on admissions, mortality, cure rates, hosiptal costs. Also used frequency data from hosptials. |
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Naturalism |
scientific procedures & laws apply to all phenomena |
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Heuristic Theory |
one that fosters discovery, learning and predictive efficiency. |
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Cosmogeny |
Study of origin of the universe |
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Evolution of solar system |
1) Aristotelian view of immutability & permanence of sun and stars 2) 17th century: Copernican cosmology (believed in natural history of the solar system) (Descartes, Kant, Laplace) |
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Nebular Hypothesis |
supported by Kant & Laplace matter was once distributed across universe in form of "gaseous clouds" Laws of motion, attraction & repulsion form them into a series of concentric rings forces of attraction within each ring form "spheres" corresponding to our planets The material in the center formed the sun |
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Buffon |
produced massive work "Histoire Naturelle" one of the first to propose an evolutionary model church had dated date of creation to 4004 BCE. Buffon determined that the age of the earth was almost 75,000 years (far older). He had to publish a retraction. |
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1) Cuvier 2) Lyell |
1) Cuvier: proposed "catastrophe theory" (natural catastrophes had annihilated entire species and transformed earth's topography) 2) Lyell challenged this view. he argued for "uniformitarianism" (evolutionary changes on earth occur gradually over vast stretches of time) "uniformitarianism" replaced "catastrophe theory" & became the orthodox position for over a century. Lyell = founder of modern Geology. |
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Origins of organic evolution |
Erasmus Darwin (grandpa of Charles Darwin & Galton) believed all animals evolved from same basic organic material, and that humans are not far off from animals. mechanism for such an evolution = "inheritance of acquired characteristics" found evidence in domestic breeding, climatic effects on animals, and breeding abnormalities. |
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Lamarck |
early theory of organic evolution, pioneer in invertebrate paleontology tragic personal life "progressionism": idea of steady linear advance in nature from simple to more complex forms of life believed in "branching evolution & vanishing of many forms" (church: God cannot make mistakes thus no vanishing) appreciated concepts like extinction & adaptation most controversial aspect: mechanism: environmental changes impact the needs of an organism. Once a need is established, adaptive mechanisms are set in motion (behaviour changes and new behaviours impact biological structure). Required adaptations are then genetically transmitted to offspring. |
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Charles Darwin |
Sound evidence & a mechanism for evolution was needed Undertook voyage on HMS Beagle. Saw how different environments shaped life at every turn. In Galapagos Islands: found unexplainable differences in plant & animal life from island to island. Some species were unique to an island, some were common to all islands but varied from one island to the next. |
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Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution |
Breakthrough: inspired by "Essay on the Principle of Population" by Malthus (population outgrow their food sources, which leads to the inevitable struggle for survival) Still worked at a slow pace (20 years since Galapagos & nothing published) 1858: shocked by manuscript of friend Wallace (also inspired by Malthus's essay): it paralleled Darwin's ideas. Both their ideas were presented at a conference, with little public attention. Then he finally summarised his work: "Origins of Species by means of Natural Selection" published in 1859, immediately sold out. 4 essential features: 1) all species produce more members than can survive 2) variation appears in all populations 3) struggle for survival follows. Some are better adapted to survive than others. 4) The ones with better adaptations will pass these on to their offspring as an advantage. Outcome = a "natural selection" for survival & extinction |
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Significance of evolutionary theory for psychology |
1) new emphasis on functional, developmental & comparative processes 2) evolutionary psych became a prominent theoretical psychological perspective 3) evolution became a productive organising feature in all biological sciences 4) focus on dark sides of human behaviour & shows continuity between humans and animals (mating, mate guarding)\ --> comparative psychology --> developmental psychology --> emphasis on adaptation --> individual differences |
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Comparative Psychology |
interest in comparisons between animals & humans was triggered by Darwin's "The Origin" much of early work was anecdotal. Often: anthropomorphism (attributing human characteristics to animals) --> George Romanes Conwy Morgan: advanced a more disciplined view. "Morgan's Canon" (basal principle) |
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"Morgan's Canon" (basal principle) |
In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if it can be interpreted in terms of 'lower' processes (in terms of psychological evolution and development) Wertheimer: Precision orientation: risk of oversimplification Richness orientation: risk of referring to constructs without a scientific basis Whitehead: aim of science is to seek simplest explanation of the facts |
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Developmental Psychology |
following Darwin: child study movement emerged Haeckel's recapitulation theory: ontogeny (origin/history of the individual) recapitulates (restates) phylogeny (origin/history of species). The development of the individual repeats the development of its species. Preyer: "Die Seele des Kindes" observed mental growth & language development of his son. |
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Individual Differences & Galton |
Prior to Darwin, individual differences were often attributed to will. Darwin inspired Galton to see individual differences (in intelligence) as inherited wrote: "Hereditary Genius", showing that exceptional accomplishment runs in families. Promoted eugenics (selective breeding of humans to improve the species) Galton's work had strong racist & sexist biases |
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Herbert Spencer |
coined expression: "survival of the fittest" forerunnner of functionalism argued for racial superiority of Europeans |
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Demonology |
explanations of mental illness based on demonic possession early times & middle ages BUT actually even more widespread during Renaissance. Reached its peak in mid-17th century) Pricking = method of diagnosing demonic possession (prick skin, until you find a spot doesn't bleed or hurt) |
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The Witches Hammer |
In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII worried about people giving themselves to the devil. He commissioned 2 inquisitors, who wrote "The Witches' Hammer" 14 editions by 1520, translated into several European languages 3 parts: 1) classification of devils & witches, 2) methods of devils & witches along with defenses & remedies, 3) procedures to bring them to justice (interrogation etc.) Motivated by paranoia & fear of anarchy A witch can conspire with the devil to create emotional disorders. During 16th & 17th century with trials & persecution spread across Europe. Targeted members of outgroups, heretics, intellectual, homosexuals). Esp. Jews & women suffered. European with hunts amounted to a holocaust. Tests: thown into water (floating --> guilt, sinking --> innocence), weeping test (witches can't cry, but can fake tears!), signs like birthmarks, moles, scars. |
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Demise of Witchcraft |
Johann Weyer: treatise "On Magic" said that witches = harmless old women, suffering from mental illness, and that natural causes explain away instances of so called witchcraft. Was then himself accused of being a witch. Spinoza: denied intermediate forces between humans & god. Demons = nonsense. Unity between god & nature and emphasis on natural causality. Descartes: relationship between brain activity & mental processes leaves no room for other agencies like demons. |
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Humanitarian Reform |
empiricism, rationalism, evolution, naturalistic approach & new physiological discoveries contributed to: intellectual climate supportive of a new science & profession. Full of optimism, progressive causes inspired dramatic reform |
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Franz Anton Mesmer |
interest in electricity & magnetism stole idea of "magnetic therapy" from Maximilian Hell (use of magnets in healing the sick) --> scorn & skepticism from scientific community first attempts at group therapy: idea of psychotherapy as a "theatre" --> "looked more like a sorcerer than physician" Controversy travelled to King Louis XVI, who convened panel of experts: no support for "mesmerism" --> shattered his career & reputation His legacy = modern use of hypnotherapy. He didn't practice hypnosis, but relied on methods of suggestion. |
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Philippe Pinel |
spearheaded widespread reform in French asylums Disturbed by horrible conditions in Bicetre hospital, he petitioned the government to experiment with new methods of treatment. Slowly he liberated 50 patients. Emphasized logical consequences with them (continued freedom depends on behaviour). Patient after patient responded to his humane treatment. Pinel's method = return to psychological medicine of the ancient Greeks Wrote "A treatise on Insanity": distinguished 5 clinical categories ("species"): melancholia, mania without delirium, mania with delirium, dementia & idiotism. |
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Pinel's idea of ideal mental treatment |
1) hospitals should group patients according to nature & severity of disorder 2) Patients should live in clean & uncrowded quarters 3) chance to enjoy fresh air & sunlight 4) opportunity to engage in work 5) physical restraint only when necessary |
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Benjamin Rush |
original signer of Declaration of Independence, first American psychiatrist & author of first psychopathology textbook in US. reconciled Jefferson & J. Adams (2 former US presidents) pursued many social causes: slavery, education for women, national university system, flexibility in school curricula & emphasis on practical subjects. Protested use of punishment, & called for reform of prison conditions. cause of all diseases (incl. mental ones) = disturbances of circulation first case study of someone with multiple personalities, first medical studies on alcohol (first to claim that alcoholism = addiction & progressive disease) Designed: "gyrator" machine to spin the patient around to simulate blood flow in the brain. "tranquilizing chair" used to restrain maniacal patients. Believed this was more humane than straightjackets. |
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Bethlehem (Bedlam) Hospital in London |
patients were treated as savages, visitors could pay to observe & taunt the patients Tuke: distressed by death of young women troubled with melancholia, short time after admission to Bedlam, he sought to create an alternative: 'York Retreat'. |
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Dorothea Dix |
catalyst for making Pinel's & Tuke's techniques available on a larger scale. opened "dame school", an a free evening school for poor children. shocked by jail conditions when she went there to subsitute a Sunday School class. Sought court action about heating the cells & was successful. Inspired to investigate more. Armed herself with data (first social research) involved in founding 32 mental hospitals, several schools for cognitive deficits, training facilities for nurses, improvements in prisons & mental institutions |
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Itard |
pioneer in study of mental deficiency, teacher of the deaf "Wild Boy of Aveyron" had been diagnosed as incurable idiot by Pinel, but Itard disagreed. Worked with the boy for 2 yrs: couldnt teach him to speak, but boy became affectionate & responsive, understood many words and could engage in useful tasks |
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Seguin |
developed a systematic approach for sensory training & self-care skills for people with cognitive disabilities |
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Margaret Sanger |
observed critical differences between small & large families identified with the plight of poor women believed a women's health & social equality depended in part on birth control --> faced strong & vocal opposition |
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Leta Stetter Hollingworth |
conducted research showing that the menstrual cycle does not mentally or physically incapacitate women. |
