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85 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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• Phonemes
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elementary units of sound used to produce langs and they distinguish meaning
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• Morphemes
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smallest units of meaning in lang, composed of one or more phonemes
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• Syntax
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rules in lang that specify how words from diff categories (nouns, verbs, adjs) can be combined
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• Brain-lang relations
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• There are hemispheric differences in lang functioning
• 90% of ppl that are right-handed, lang is primarily represented and controlled by the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex • “We speak with the left hemisphere” • Left hemisphere shows some specialization for lang at early age with the degree of hemispheric specialization for lang increasing over time |
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• Critical period for lang dev
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time during which lang develops readily and after which (sometime bw age 5 and puberty) lang acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful
o Evidence for • Adults who ar well beyond critical period are more likely to suffer permanent lang impairment from brain damage than children • Studies of adults who learned second lang at diff ages shows diff patterns of cerebral organization in late learners vs early |
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• Prelinguistic communication
o What a baby provides |
• Social signals (crying, smiling)
• Intense interest in social partners • Intentional attempts to communicate (9-12 months) • Gaze alternation, gestures, persistence, pointing, vocalizations |
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o What parent provides
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• Infant-directed speech—exaggerated pitch, communicates “emotional” messages, may simplify the input
• Enforcement of turn-taking structure (protodialogues) • Strong motivation to communicate and treat infants’ actions as intentional and meaningful • Engagement and support of joint attention |
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• Prosody
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the characteristic rhythm, tempos, cadence, melody, and intonational patterns with which a lang is spoken
o Differences in prosody are responsible for why langs sound different from each other |
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• Categorical perception
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perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories
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• In Freud’s theory
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• Dev is largely driven by biological maturation
• Behavior is motivated by need to satisfy basic drives • Drives are unconscious and people only know very slightly why they do what they do |
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• In Erikson’s theory,
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• dev is driven by serious of developmental crises related to age and biological maturation; must successfully resolve crises to achieve healthy dev
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o Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Dev
• Basic features |
• Psychosexual dev
o Bc the thought that even very young children have sexual nature that motivates their behavior and influences their relationships with other ppl |
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psychic energy
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biologically based, instinctual drives that fuel behavior, thoughts, and feelings
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erogenous zones
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areas of body that are erotically sensitive
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o Id
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earliest and most primitive personality structure
• Biological drives with which the infant is born • Completely unconscious; source of psychic energy • Ruled by pleasure principle—goal if achieving max gratification quickly • Remains source of psychic energy throughout life; operations most apparent in selfish or impulsive behavior |
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o Ego
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rational, logical, problem-solving component of personality
• Emerges in first year • Arises out of need to resolve conflicts bw id’s demands and restraints imposed by external world • Operates under reality principle—trying to find ways to satisfy the id that accord with demands of real world • Never fully in control |
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o Superego
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consisting of internalized moral standards
• Develops during ages 3-6 • What we think of as conscience • Allows child to control his/her own behavior on basis of beliefs about right and wrong • Based on child’s internalization—process of adopting of parents’ rules and standards for acceptable and unacceptable behavior • Guides child to avoid actions that would result in guilt |
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• Trust vs. mistrust (first year)
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o Crucial issue for infant is to develop a sense of trust
o If mother is warm and reliable in her caregiving, infant learns that she can be trusted o If trust is not gained, will have difficulty forming intimate relationships later in life |
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• Autonomy verses shame & doubt (ages 1-3 ½)
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o Challenge is to achieve strong sense of autonomy while adjusting to increasing social demands
o If parents provide supportive atmosphere that allows children to gain self-control w/o loss of self-esteem, then will gain autonomy o But if children are subjected to severe punishment or ridicule, they will come to doubt their skills or feel sense of shame |
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• Initiative vs guilt (4-6 years)
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o Children come to identify with and learn from their parents
o Constantly setting goals and working to achieve them o Internalization of parents’ rules and standards and experiencing guilt when failing to uphold them is key o If parents are not highly controlling or punitive, children can get high standards and the initiative to meet them without being crushed by worry about not being able to measure up |
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• Industry vs inferiority (6-puberty)
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o Crucial for ego dev
o Master cog/social skills that are important in culture o Successful experiences give sense of competence but failure leads to excessive feelings of inadequacy/inferiority |
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• Identity vs role confusion
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o Dramatic physical changes of puberty and emergence of strong sexual urges are accompanied by new social pressures
o Must resolve question of who they are or live in confusion about what roles they should play as adults |
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• Learning theories
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o Consider learning from experience to be the primary factor in social/personality dev
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o Watson’s behaviorism
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believed that children’s dev is determined by their social environment and that learning through conditioning is the main mechanism of dev
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• Systematic desensitization
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form of therapy based on classical condition where positive responses are gradually conditioned to stimuli that initially elicited a highly negative response
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o Skinner’s operant conditioning
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• Major tenet of theory is that we tend to repeat behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes (reinforcement) and suppress those that result in unfavorable outcomes (punishment
• Believed everything we do in life is an operant response influenced by outcomes of past behavior |
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• Intermittent reinforcement
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inconsistent response to the behavior of another person by sometimes punishing for unacceptable behavior and sometimes ignoring it
o Makes behaviors resistant to extinction o One reason most kids have at least a few persistent bad habits |
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behavior modification
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reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior
• Instead of paying attention when kid is by himself, pay attention when hes playing with peers and soon he will spend most of his time with peers |
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o Social learning theory
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• In assessing influence of environment on children’s dev, theory emphasizes observation and imitation rather than reinforcement and main mechanisms for dev
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• Observational learning depends on basic cog processes of
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• Attention to others’ behavior
• Encoding what is observed • Storing the info in memory • Retrieving it at some later time in order to reproduce behavior observed earlier |
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• Albert bandura
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argued that most human learning is inherently social in nature and is based on observation of the behavior of other ppl
• Emphasized active role of children in their own dev |
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reciprocal determinism
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child-environment influences operate in both directions; children are affected by aspects of their environment but also influence environment
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Bandura's classic series of studies
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found that preschool children can acquire new behaviors through observing others
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o Discovered that children’s tendency to reproduce what they learned depended on vicarious reinforcement
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observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
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Bobo Doll Findings
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• Observing someone else receive a reward/punishment for behavior affects the subsequent reproduction of behavior
• Boys were initially more aggressive than girls but girls increased their level of imitation when offered rewards |
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• Theories of social cognition
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o Have to do with children’s ability to think/reason about their own and other people’s thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors
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o Dodge’s information-processing theory of social problem solving
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• Emphasizes the crucial role of cog processes in social behavior
• Child as a computational system o Encoding, interpreting (processing), enacting |
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• Found some kids have hostile attribution bias
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tendency to assume that other people’s ambiguous actions stem from a hostile intent
• Leads kids to search for evidence of hostile intent on the part of the peer and to attribute to the peer a desire to harm them • Becomes self-fulfilling prophecies |
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o Dweck’s theory of self-attributions and achievement motivation
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• Emphasizes role of self-attributions in academic achievement
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entity/helpless orientation
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attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and tend to give up in face of failure
o These children tend to base their sense of self-worth on the degree of approval they receive from other ppl o To be assured of praise, they avoid situations in which they are likely to not be successful |
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incremental/mastery orientation
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attribute success/failure to the amount of effort expended and persist in the face of failure
o Enjoy challenge of a hard problem and persist in the attempt to solve it |
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• Entity theory of intelligence
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person’s level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
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• Incremental theory of intelligence
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rooted in idea that intelligence can grow as a function of experience
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Emotional Development
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• The ability to delay gratification in one situation in preschool predicted social, emotional, and academic competence so many years later
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emotional intelligence
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set of abilities that contribute to competence in the social and emotional domains
o Includes being able to motivate oneself and persist in face of frustration, control impulses and delay gratification, identity and understand one’s own and others’ feelings, regulate one’s moods, regulate the expression of emotion in social interactions, and empathize with others’ emotions |
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• Discrete emotions theory
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• Argues that each emotion is innately packaged with a specific set of physiological, bodily, and facial reactions and that distinct emotions are evident from very early in life
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• Alan Sroufe said there are 3 basic affect systems
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o Joy/pleasure
o Anger/frustration o Wariness/fear • Such changes are largely due to infants’ expanding social experiences and their increasing ability to understand them |
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• Functionalist approach
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o Argues that basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal
o Emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on social environment |
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• Possible causes of depression
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o Genetic factors
o Maladaptive belief symptoms o Feelings of powerlessness o Negative beliefs and self-perceptions o Lack of social skills |
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• Family factors of depression
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o Low levels of family engagement, support, and acceptance
o Parents’ punishing or dampening responses o Stress/conflict |
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• Shift from caregiver regulation to self-regulation
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• Parents help regulate infants emotional arousal by soothing or distracting them
• By 6 months, infants show first signs of emotional self-regulation o Reduce distress by simply averting their gaze or self-soothing • By 1-2 years, increasingly distract themselves from distressing stimuli |
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• Develop and improve ability once older by distracting themselves by playing on their own when distressed
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o Neurological maturation
o Use of lang o Use of cog strategies |
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• Social competence
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ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others
• Kids that can inhibit inappropriate behaviors, delay gratification, use cog methods of controlling emotion/behavior tend to be well-adjusted and liked by peers/adults |
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o Temperament
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constitutionally based individual diffs in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations as well as relative stability over time
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• Research on infant temperament
• Three categories |
o Easy babies (40%)—adjust readily to new experiences, quickly established routines, and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm
o Difficult babies (10%)—were slow to adjust to new experiences, likely to react negatively and intensely to stimuli and events, and irregular in their bodily functions o Slow-to-warm-up babies (15%)—somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time |
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• Recent research suggests that infants temperament is captured by six dimensions
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o Fearful distress/inhibition
o Irritable distress o Attention span and persistence o Activity level o Positive affect/approach o Rhythmicity |
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behavioral inhibition
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tendency to be particularly fearful and restrained when dealing with novel or stressful situations
o More likely than other children to have problems like anxiety, depression, phobias, and social withdrawal at older ages |
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• How children adjust depends not just on temperament but also how well their temperament fits with the particular environment called goodness to fit
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degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with demands and expectations of his social environment
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• Attachments
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emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time
o Persistent, emotionally salient, person-specific, desire to maintain proximity, protest unwanted separation |
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• Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
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children are biologically predisposed to develop attachment with caregivers as means of increasing chances of own survival
• Key idea is that infants’ earliest relationships with mothers shape later development |
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• “Competence-motivated infant” who uses primary caregiver as a secure base
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presence of a trusted caregiver provided an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment
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• Dev of attachment takes place in four phases
o Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks) |
infant produces innate signals, most notably crying, that summon caregivers, and the infant is comforted by the ensuing interaction
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o Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months)—
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infants respond to familiar ppl usually by smiling, babbling; more easily soothed by person
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o Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 1 ½ years
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actively seek contact with regular caregivers; exhibit separation anxiety/distress when mom leaves
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o Reciprocal relationships (1 ½ or 2 years and on
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toddlers’ rapidly increasing cog/lang skills lets then understand parents’ feelings, goals, and motives
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internal working model of attachment
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mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general that is constructed as result of experiences with caregivers
o Will create expectations due to parents behaviors o Those expectations will then translate to other social interactions and relationships o Relation to Erikson’s trust and mistrust |
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o Developmental outcomes
• Secure |
• More sociable, cooperative, competent, self-esteem, better liked by peers and teachers
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• Avoidant
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• Don’t seek social support, lack trust, play with objects more than peers
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• Ambivalent
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• Anxious, express lots of neg affect, less compliant
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• Disorganized
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• Psychopathology
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o Peers
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are individuals who are close in age to one another and of similar status
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• Characteristics
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• Unique learning experiences
o Maintain convos o Cooperation o Goal setting o Formation of friendships • Dominance hierarchy o Consistent pattern of winner and losers |
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• Moral judgment
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o Morality of behavior is based partly on cognitions like conscious goals/intentions that underlie behavior
o Changes in moral reasoning form basis for moral dev |
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o Piaget’s Theory of MD
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• Says kids moral reasoning changes from a rigid acceptance of the dictates/rules of authorities to appreciation that moral rules are product of social interaction and can be changed
• Interactions w peers are source of advances of moral reasoning than adult influence |
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• Morality of constraint (4-7 years)
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o Primarily focused on outcome
o Rules are fixed and determined by adults • Social reason: parental control • Cog reason: cognitive immaturity o Consequences of transgression determine the severity of punishment • 15 cups is more than 1 cup so punishment for breaking 15 cups should be more severe |
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• Transitional period
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o Ages 7/8-10 years, kids learn that rules can be made and changed by interactions with peers
o Start to value fairness/equality and begin to be more autonomous |
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• Autonomous morality (11 and up)
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o Focus on intention
o Rules are flexible, can change; rules are social agreements • No longer accept blind obedience o Intentions determine the severity of punishment • Boy going to dinner meant no harm, so he should not be punished o Rec that it may be necessary at times to break rules |
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o Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Judgment
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• Mostly interested in sequences through which kids moral reasoning develops
• Proposed MD proceeds through stages that are discontinuous and hierarchical • Each stage reflects qualitatively diff more adequate way of thinking than one before • Reasoning behind choices of what to do in dilemma, instead of choices themselves is what showed quality of MR |
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Preconventional
Up to age 9 |
1. punishment and obedience
Right/wrong defined by punishment 2. instrumental-relativist Right and wrong determined by what we are rewarded for and what others what Any concern for others is motivated by selfishness |
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Conventional
Most adolescents and adults |
3. interpersonal concordance
Being good is whatever pleases others Right and wrong are determined by the majority 4. law and order Being good means doing your duty to society You obey laws without question and show a respect for authority |
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Post-conventional
10 to 15% of adults |
5. social contract
Right/wrong determined by personal values, although these can be over-ridden by democratically agreed laws Follow sense of justice, not always the law 6. Universal ethical principle Follow moral principles which are seen as more important than laws |
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: Social Domain Theory
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• Domain theory, not a stage theory
• Focused on diffs in the moral, conventional and psychological domains • Three domains of knowledge |
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• Moral domain
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o Justice, fairness, equality, rights
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• Societal domain
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o Conventions, traditions, customs, norms
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• Psychological domain
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o Autonomy, individual choice
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