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254 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Correlation |
meaning association between two variables |
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A good researcher avoids |
heuristics - mental short cuts observer bias - systematic errors in obersvation |
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Cognitive Bias |
Hindsight - tendency to overestimate how well we could successfully forecast known outcomes Overconfidence - tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions |
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Theory |
organized systems of assumption, can be abstract or general |
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hypothesis |
attempt to predict a set of phenomena |
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operational definitons |
define terms in hypothesis by specifying the operations for being observed |
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Case Study |
description of a particular individual |
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observational studies |
researchers carefully and systematically observe and record behaviour without interfering |
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Naturalistic Observations |
observation of human or animal behaviour in the environment in which it typically occurs |
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Standardization |
defining meaningful scores by comparing it with the performance of a pretested group, by having norms established, we know who scores high or low |
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Reliability |
the extent to which the test yield consistent results |
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Validity |
the test broadly represents the traits in the question |
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Criterion Validity |
measures how one variable can predict the outcome based on other variables |
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Predictive Validity |
The extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure |
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Surveys |
Representation sample of a population to get an opinion |
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Correlation studies |
looking for relations, its a statistical measure of how strongly two variables are related |
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Direction of correlations |
Positive - relations increase or decrease with each other Negative - an association where one variable decreases while the other increases |
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Experimental |
controlled test where researcher manipulates the variable to discover its effect on another |
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Evolutionary Psychology |
looks for the adaptive benefits of selected human behaviour |
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Natural Selection |
Darwin process by which inherited characteritcs lead to an advantage in adapting to the environment are more likely to be passed to future generations |
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Humans must preform three interrelated activities: |
1. Sensing Stimuli 2. Processing Stimuli 3. Responding to Stimuli |
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Stimulus |
Environmental feature that provokes a response from an organism |
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Receptors |
specialized cells that are sensitive to specific types of stimulus energy |
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Central Nervous System |
division of nervous system that consists of spinal cord and brain |
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Peripheral Nervous System |
connects outer portion of body with the CNS |
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Somatic System |
consists of nerves that connect receptors to the spinal cord and brain Afferent (sensory) - from receptors TO spinal cord Efferent (motor) - carries info FROM spinal cord |
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Autonomic System |
affects organs and glands in ways that reulate body functions Sympathetic - flight-or-fight Parasympathetic - resting, house-keeping |
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The Endocrine System |
glands that produce hormones into the bloodstream, slower then nervous system |
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Adrenal Glands |
Responds to fight-or-flight |
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Pineal Gland |
centre of brain, melatonin |
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Pancreas |
Insulin and glucose |
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Thyroid |
regulates calcium and metabolism |
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Testes/Ovaries |
sex hormones |
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Pituitary Gland |
secretes growth hormones |
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Hypothalamus |
in the brain, signals the release of hormones |
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Neurons |
cells in the nervous system that transmit signals when stimulated by sensory input or triggered by neighbouring neurons |
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Dendrite |
receivers of information |
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Soma |
cell body, contains nucleus |
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Axon |
transmits electrical signals to one part of the body to other |
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Terminal Button |
stores neurotransmitters |
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Myelin Sheath |
composed of glial cells, insulates axon, speeds up the process |
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Synapose |
dendrites and axons do not touch, they send info through synaptic gap (action potential) the messengers are neurotransmitters |
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Excitatory Neurotransmitters |
revs up neurons up the fire off action potential |
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Inhibitory Neurotransmitters |
slows down action potential from happening |
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sensation |
activation of receptors by stimuli in the environment (collected info) |
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perception |
process of organizing and making sense of the sensory information (making sense of info) |
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transduction |
converting stimulation into electrical chemical energy |
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adaptation/desensitization |
is a loss of sensitivity to a stimulus |
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Earnst Webber |
psychophysics, observation that the amount of stimulus increases or decreases enough to notice a change |
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Gustav Fechner |
thresholds: 2 absolute threshold:lowest amount of stimulus that an organism can detect just noticable difference (JND)- smallest amount of stimulation to be added or subtracted to be noticed 50% of the time |
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single detection theory |
model for predicting how and when a person will detect the stimulus 50% of the time |
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vision |
receptor of elctro magnetic waves by visual receptors |
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visual light pathway |
light passes back to the rods and cons which is past the retina (passes between ganglion cells and bipolar cells), rods and cons detect the light and pass it on to the bipolar cells, they then pass it to the ganglion cells, these ganglion cells form together to create the optic nerve which then is sent to the eyes and brain to be interpreted (cornea---pupal---lens---retina) |
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light striking rods and cons |
when light hits the rods and cones it hyper-polarizes rods and cons releasing their inhibitory influence on the bipolar cells which exicutes and sends messages to the brain AKA light starts at the back and makes its way to the front |
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the visual pathways |
the optic nerves from each eye join at the optic chiasm information then goes straight to the thalamus |
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visual receptors |
rods-most prevalent, have lower thresholds (can detect light easier) and lower acuity (do not detect colour) cons- higher threshold and acuity (do detect colour) fovea- spot in centre of retina that contains only cones |
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photopigments |
light sensitive chemicals contained in rods and cones |
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young-helmholtz trichromatic theory |
suggests that the retina has these specific colour receptor cons that register red,green and blue and when stimulated together their combined power allows the eye to register any colour |
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opponent process theory |
suggests we see colour through processes that work against eachother some receptor cells can be stimulated by red while inhibited by green ex) red fires, green inhibitors |
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hearing (auditory system)- audition |
a sound wave moving air, objects vibrate causing air molecules to move, movement makes sound |
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1. wavelength 2. amplitude 3. purity |
1. frequency 2. amplitude 3. timbre |
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Auditory Recepters |
are sensitive to a limited range of wavelengths |
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Outer Ear |
gathers sound wavs and sends them to the auditory sensors |
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Middle Ear (ossicles) |
ossicles - contain three bones conducts sound from outer ear to inner ear oval window - structure that connects the middle ear with the cochlea of the inner ear Movement causes the cochlea to move |
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Inner Ear |
Basilar membrane (hair cells built on) located in the cochlea, fluid causes vibration which causes the organ of corti to move and fall - when it moves up, the cells brush against the tectorial membrane |
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Auditory pathway |
Sound ways move to Pinna --> auditory receptors --> auditory canal --> strike ear drum --> ossicles --> cochlea --> vibration in the basilar membrane --> organ of corti --> tectorial membrane --> depolarization |
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Why is the ear so complex? |
To protect the brain from foreign objects or substances |
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Place Theory (Helmholtz) |
pitch depends on where the hair cells is located on the organ of corti bending hair cells oval window = higher |
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Frequency Theory (Rutherford) |
Pitch depending on how frequently/rapidly the basilar membrane vibrates |
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Volley Principle |
Frequency of about 100Hz |
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Sound locomotion mechanism |
blockage of certain sounds by head, time delay in neuro processing |
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Auditory localization |
sounds from different directions are not identical |
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Hearing Problems |
Conduction Deafness = outer and middle ear Sensorineural deafness = damage to inner ear Central Deafness = disease or tumour |
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Taste (Gustation) |
Tastebuds read food molecules and reports it to the brain to interpret the information Taste buds line the wall of the papillae and are continuously being replaced |
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5 types of tastes |
Umami (savoury), sweet, sour, salty, bitter |
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2 factors involved in taste |
1) Taste receptors that are stimulated 2) Pattern of firing that occurs across the taste neurons that travel to the cortex |
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Taste path |
receptor sites occupy --> depolarization --> gustatory nerve --> medulla --> synapsis --> thamalus --> sensory cortex |
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Smell (olfactory) |
odors produced by molecules in the air |
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Nose |
collects and filters air we breathe (olfactory receptors are BEHIND the nose) continuously dying and being replaced Operate under lock and key pattern |
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Steps of smelling
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1. molecules reach receptor cells behind each nasal cavity 2. the axons of these millions of receptors carry nerve impulses back to the olfactory bulb 3. the olfactory bulb transmits these impulses to the temporal lobe of the brain |
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Scent |
Our scent is connected to the limbic system which is right next to the amygdala (emotions) and hippocampus (memory) |
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Four distinct senses of touch |
pressure, warmth, cold, pain
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Cutaneous senses |
Pressure (mechno-), temp (therm-), pain (nocio-) |
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Control Theory |
the release of substance P in spinal cord produces the sensation of pain |
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Vestibuler Sense |
system located in inner ear that allows us to make adjustments in bodily movements and posture |
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Semicircular canals |
Fluid filled passage in inner ear that detects movement in head |
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Utricle |
fluid filled chamber in inner ear that detects gravity |
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Kinesthic sense |
provides info on location of extremities |
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Divided Attention |
Ability to attain more than one type of information at the same time (being sensitive to your name being called) |
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Perception Bias |
Based on mood, attitude, expectation |
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Pattern Perception |
ability to distinguish between different patterns and signals |
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Future Analysis Theory |
we perceive basic elements of an object and mentally assemble them to complete the object |
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Bottom-Up and Top-down |
Bottom Up- basic elements to complete
Top Down - breaking down complete objects |
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Perceptual Set |
Psychological factors that determine how you perceive the environment, distinguishing figure from groud |
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Perceptual Constancy |
Size and shape stay constant even if image changes |
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Binocular Cues |
use of both eyes Disparity - difference between images in each eye |
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Monocular Cues |
use of one eye Texture Gradient - smoother with distance Linear Perspective - parallel lines converge with distance Brightness - brighter colours appear closer |
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Gestalt Principle of Perception |
Perceptual world activity organized into groups and classifications Proximity - group like things together Continuity - prefer smooth and continuous patterns Closure - whole objects easier to perceive than individual parts |
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Apparent Movement |
Illusions of movements in stationary objects |
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Perceptual Hypothesis |
Interference of nature of stimulus in the environment |
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Visual Perception |
Shape/colour |
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Paranormal Phenomenon |
Extrasensory - behaviours or experiences that cannot be from the senses |
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Serial Learning (order recall) |
material learned must be repeated in the same order in which it was memorized |
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Free Recall |
Learned material can be repeated in every order |
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Paired Association Learning |
Items to be recalled are learned in terms of pairs, when one items is presented, others are called |
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Recognition |
Ability to pick up previously learned items (multiple choice questions) |
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Relearning Test |
compares the number of trials required to learn the same material Saving Score - difference between learning speed between original learning and repeated learning |
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Ebbinghaus 1800s |
Nonsense Syllables Two main Findings 1. Serial Position Effect - tendency to recall first and last items on the list (primacy and recency) 2. Forgetting curve - memory for learning material is best right after learning session |
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Encoding |
info is transformed or coded (transduction) into neural form that can be produced further and stored - relates to already stored info |
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Storage |
Info placed in memory system, involves both brief and long term memory depends on how often used |
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Retrieval |
Stored memory brought to consciousness |
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Sensory memory |
related to senses (images, sounds, tastes) big capacity, very short |
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Short-Term memory |
once info is obtained from sensory memory which is then transformed to conscious awareness and then could be transformed to LTM |
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STM - Decay Theory |
If memories are not practiced, they are erased |
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STM - Interference Theory |
push out old info to make room for new info |
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STM - working memroy |
active processing that brings attention to bear on material |
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Long Term Memory |
Store information relatively permanently importance of rehearsal removed when no longer needed |
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Amnesia |
Memory loss after experiencing a trauma 1. Anterograde - inability to store new memories 2. Retrograde - loss of memories before trauma |
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Levels of Processing Model |
Deeper processing of information increases the likelihood that the information will be recalled Shallow Processing - encoding information on basic auditorial of visual levels based on sound, structure, appearance etc. of work |
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Types of Rehearsal |
1. Maintenance rehearsal to maintain memory for a short period of time 2. Elaborate Rehearsal - add meaning to material already learned |
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LTM - Explicit |
memories we are consiously aware of 1. semantic - general knowledge tip of the tongue - almost being able to remeber 2. episodic - personal experience - flash bulb memory - traumatic memories = more vivid |
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TLM - Implicit |
memories we are not consciously aware of but still have an influence on us 1. priming - prior exposure to stimuli may aid subsequent memory 2. Procedural - making responses and preforming skilled actions (riding a bike) |
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Retrieval |
process by which we locate a memory we have stored and than brought back to consciousness |
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Schema |
grouping a cluster of knowledge about an object or sequence of events |
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Encoding Specificity Hypothesis |
the retrieval success depends on the cues being studied during encoding and cues presented at the recall |
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State-dependent Learning |
material learned in particular state or content is best recalled in the same state |
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Memory Illusions |
You can remember things that never happened 1. Crypto-amnesia - plagiarism - you forget the actual source 2. Deja Vu 3. Paramnesia -proper meaning of words cant be remembered 4. Jemais Vu - |
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Mneomonic Devices |
Procedures for associating new information with perviously stored memories |
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Processing Strategies |
Imagery - use of visuals aids Loci - use of familiar locations as cues to recall items Peg-ward Technique - use of similar names and cues Grouping - grouping like things together Coding using acronyms or acrostics |
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Consciousness |
awareness of feelings, sensations and thoughts at a given moment |
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daydreaming |
form of consciousness involving fantasies - altered state |
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William James |
Consciousness is a stream, its continuous, can change, and has depth |
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Anesthetic Depth |
Surgery patients remain conscious (feel pain but cannot communicate) |
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Brain injuries |
1.Wakefulness: Reticular Formation 2. Awareness: Thalamus and cerebral cortex |
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The Rhythms of Life Ultradian |
shorter than 24 hours (heart beat) |
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The Rhythms of Life Infradian |
longer than 24 hours (menstrual cycle) |
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Circadian Rhythm |
internal biological changes that occur daily ex) sleep wake cycle |
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Sleep-Wake Cycle |
internal clock in the SNC (super chiasmata nucleus) |
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Melatonin |
bright light suppresses, dark light tiggers |
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Problems with Circadian Rhythm |
Jet Leg - easier to adapt to east-west (phase delay) than west-east (phase advanced)
Shift Work - variety of health problems |
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Sleep |
A periodic natural reversible and near total loss of consciousness |
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EEG Electroencephallograph |
machine that measures the brains electric activity
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NREM |
Stage 1: few minutes transition between wakefulness and sleep. Can experience hypnagogic feeling of falling Stage 2: 50% of sleep, sleep spindles, and muscle paralysis Stage 3/4: slow wave sleeps, regular breathing, BP falls |
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REM |
Rapid Eye Movements, dreams, high brain activity, phsycial indications of sexual arousal -average adult experience this cycle 6 times each night |
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Why We Sleep |
Deprived people experience microscopes (brief episodes of sleep (30s) that intrudes on wakefulness) |
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Insomnia |
Most common Difficulty falling or maintaining sleep |
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Hypersomnia |
excessive day time sleepiness Narcolepsy - uncontrollable sleep defects this symptoms are due to intrusion of REM sleep into waking time |
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Sleep Apnea |
Flow of air to lungs stop for at least one second, may not start again for a minute or longer |
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Sudden Infant Death Syndrom (SIDS) |
not explained in atopsy, no explained cause of death |
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Parasomnia |
Destressing sleep behaviour (bed wetting (enuresis) and nightmares) |
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Sleep-waking |
occurs in stage 4, usually disappears with treatment or you outgrow it |
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Sleep Terrors |
Intensely frightening experiences in stage 4 sleep, different from nightmares which occurs in REM |
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Dreams |
Associated with REM sleep, Freud Manifest: subconsciousness |
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Hypnosis |
Hypnotic Trance - Altered state of consciousness Hypnotic Induction - people likely to follow instructions CANT be used against free will CAN be used to reduce pain, recall suppress memories, relaxation etc. |
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Altering Consciousness with Drugs |
Chemicals that effect consciousness, perception, mood and behaviour |
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what do all drugs have in common |
dopimine: reward and motor control makes you feel good motivation: sex and eating |
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alcohol |
high in calories and no nutrients depressant Metabolism shuts down effects all organs |
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barbiturates (downers) |
increase binding of inhibitory neural transmitters when combined with alcohol relates to sleep problems |
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Amphetamines |
in a low dose, induce euphoria, reduces appetite and the need for sleep in high doses, anxiety and paranoid |
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hallucinogens |
changes perception and time and space distortion ex) LSD |
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phencyclindiol piperidine (PEP) |
have depressed stimuli hallucinogenic depending on dose |
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Marijuana |
most commonly used THC stimulates nerve receptors in the hippocampus and cortex |
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Learning |
Relatively permanent change in behaviour of a potential that makes a response occur as a result of an experience |
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Classical Conditioning |
Pavlov Experiment |
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Neutral Stimulus |
Does not elicit a response (Bell) |
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Unconditioned Stimulus |
Automatically produces response (Food) |
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Unconditional Response |
Reaction that is automatically responded when an unconditioned stimulus is presented (Drooling) |
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Conditioned Stimulus |
Neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a response |
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Conditioned Response |
Response elected by a conditioned stimulus that has been paired by an unconditioned stimulus |
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Acquisition |
Training stage which a particular response is learned Optimum sequence = forward conditioning CS proceeds UCS |
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Extinction |
reduction and eventual disappearance of a behaviour -present the CS without the UCS |
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Generalization / Discrimination |
When response occurs to stimuli that are similar to a conditioned response |
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Contingency Theory |
The better the CS predicts the occurrence of the UCS, the stronger the conditioning will be |
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Taste-Aversion |
Development of dislike of a food that has been prone to an illness |
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Operant Conditioning |
B.F Skinner The consequence of an action determines the likelihood it will happen again |
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Reinforcers and Punishment |
Reinforcer = strengthens the act Punisher = weakens the act both can be positive or negative |
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Edward Lee Thorndike |
Law of Effect: reinforcers promote learning, punishers lead to unlearning of responses
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Permack Principle |
The opportunity to participate in a preferred activity could reinforce less preformed activities |
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Continuous Reinforcement |
Reinforcement each time it happens |
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Partial Reinforcement |
Behaviours reinforce intermittently 1. Ratio Schedule - based on # of times behaviour occurs 2. Interval Schedule - provided after specific unit of time ex) gamblers |
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Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA) |
Ivan Lovaas Assessments of behavioural cues that detect problems |
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Insight Learning |
-operant conditioning in which we see things -the aha! moment latent learning - learning developed but not demonstrated |
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Observational Learning |
imitating behaviour (violence in media) -bobo beatdown |
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Vicarious learning |
learning by watching others be rewarded or punished |
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Contingency Management Theory |
Therapeutic Approach in drug use that uses operant conditioning |
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Motivation and Emotion |
Factors that influence the direction, arousal, intensity and persistent of behaviour |
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Instinction |
Innate (drives) that act a certain way unlearned more complex than reflexes triggered by environmental events |
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Ethology |
scientific studies of animals |
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Drive- Reduction Theory |
motivated behaviour designed to reduce a physiological imbalance |
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incentives |
the positive or negative stimuli that either entice or repel us |
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Optimal Level Theory |
Body functions best a specific arousal we seek stimulation and avoid boredom |
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Cognitive Consistency Theory |
Consistency between thoughts and behaviour because inconsistency is unpleasant cognitive dissonance - thoughts contradict actions Cognitive consonance - thoughts and actions in harmony |
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs |
Biological - safety - love - esteem- self actualization |
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Pheromones |
Chemical odors emitted by animals the influence the behaviour of animals of the same species ex) estrogen and testosterone |
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Brain Mechanisms |
Hypothalamus - regulates sexual behaviour rise and fall of estrogen - releasing factors these factors stimulate pituitary glands which secrete Follicle Stimulatory hormone and Leutanizing Hormone into blood stream |
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acheivment |
two components: 1. mastery goals- characterized when motivation and need to learn the material and improve understanding 2. performance goals: students are motivated by external factors (grades and praise) |
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James-Lange Theory |
Bodily reactions proceed emotions ex) you are sad because you are crying |
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common sense of emotion |
emotion Proceeds bodily reactions ex) you are crying because you are sad |
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cannon- bard theory |
emotion arousing stimulus triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion both simultaneously occur |
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amygdala |
receives sensory inputs and immidiately evaluates emotional meaning of the stumuli while the cortex evalutes the meaning of the inputs |
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Alexithym |
lack of emotion |
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a polygraph |
lie detector that senses and reports changes in several physiological indices including BP, HR, galvanic skin cells |
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schachter-singer theory |
labels used to describe emotions depends on immidiate environment and what is on the mind in that particular moment to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and be able to label arousal |
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appraisal theories of emotions |
how we make judjments about events = emotional reactions |
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Robert Plutnick |
offered a model of how emotions can be combined to get blends of different intensity |
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non verbal communication |
emblems- symbolics gestures illistrators- emphasizes words regulators- coordinate flow adaptors- manipulate objects and movements for a purpose |
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paralanguage |
communication that involves aspects of speech such as rate of talking but not words |
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Thinking |
manipulation of information in the form of mental images or concepts |
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Visual Imagery |
seeing even though event or object is not actually viewed, can activate brain areas responsible for visual perception
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Well defined problems |
clearly specified starting point and final product, includes a set of clearly specified tools or techniques for finding the solution |
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Ill-defined problems |
degree of uncertainty of messiness about starting point, needed operations, and final product , can have numerous acceptable responses |
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Algorithm |
systematic procedure problem which may involve evaluating all possible solutions, does not work for problems ill-defined |
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Heuristics |
educated guesses or rules of thumb used to solve problems |
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Rigidity |
tendency to rely on past experiences to solve problems |
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Functional fixedness |
inability to use familiar objects in new ways |
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Confirmation Bias |
commitment to one hypothesis without adequately testing other possibilities |
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Belief Perseverance |
the tendency to cling to initiation conceptions despite proof to the contrary |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
determining whether event, object, or person resembles a prototype |
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Availability Heuristic |
judging the probability of events by readiness with which they come to mind |
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Creativity |
Ability to produce work that is novel and appropriate, no absolute standard for creativity, depends of divergent thinking |
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Convergent Thinking |
math and science = logical, objective, intellectual, realistic |
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Divergent Thinking |
arts = intuitive, subjective, emotional, imaginative, impulsive |
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Language vs Speech |
speech is what people actually say, language is to understand the rules of what we say |
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Language -
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rarely arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols in rule-based ways to create meaning |
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Building Blocks of Language |
Phonemes: short, distinctive sound units Morphemes: smallest units that contain meaning Grammer/syntax: a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
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Four Types of Communication |
Self Disclosure Content Relationship Call for Action |
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One-Word Stage |
the stage in speech development from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words |
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Two Word Stage |
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks ostly in two-word statements |
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Telegraphic Speech |
early speech stage in which child speaks like telegram - "go car" using mostly nouns and verbs |
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Babbling |
one syllable speech-like sounds that have no meaning |
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The linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Whorf) |
suggests that syntax (word oder) and vocab can mold thinking |
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double speak |
describes language that is purposely designed to make the bad seem good, to turn a negative into a positive or to avoid or shift responsibility |
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How do children learn language |
Pronunciation errors Errors in work meaning Syntactic Development - holophrases - using one word |
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Behaviourist - language |
language is learned through imitation, association and reinforcement |
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Nativist |
children are innately predisposed to acquire language |
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Innate Capacity for Language (Chomsky) |
language is too complex to learn bit by bit, therefore it only makes sense that some parts of language is already in the brain |
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Surface Structure |
the way a sentence is spoken |
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Deep Structure |
how a sentence is to be understood |
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Intelligence |
Overall ability to excel at a variety of tasks, especially those related to success in school work |
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Galton |
First one to study Intelligence |
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Binet and Simon |
Average IQ is 100, you have to compare the child against the average performance with the adverse performance of children at particular age |
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Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
ratio of mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 |
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Wechsler |
persons score is compared with scores obtained by people of range of ages rather than single age compared |
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Standardization |
important to compare data, and to establish norms |
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Bell Curve |
intelligence test scores are distributed in the shape of a bell curve |
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Reliability |
extent to which a test yields consistent resultsIf the scores correlate, it is assumed the test is more reliable |
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Validity |
extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to |
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Savant Syndrome |
severely handicapped in overall intelligenc eyet demonstrate exceptional ability in specfific areas such as art, calculation, memory, or music |
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Two types of Intelligence Charles Spearman |
g for general intelligence s for number of specific abilities |
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Robert Sternberg |
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence emphases process of intelligence |
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Triarchic Theory comprised of |
1. analytical intelligence - recognizes steps 2. creative intelligence - divergent thinking 3. practical intelligence - common sense |
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Howard Garner |
proposes existence of a number of relatively autonomous intellectual capacties or potentials called multiple intelligence -suggests there is more to intelligence than just verbal and math skills |
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Caution |
high reliable coefficients that characterize most intelligence tests should not lead to incorrect conclusion that assessments based on such tests are always accurate |
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Controversy |
Eugenics Movement - posed that intelligence of an entire nation could be increased if more intellectual people were breeding |
