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178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Operational Definition
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a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
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Naturalistic Observation
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obseving and recording behavior in naturally ocurring situation without trying to amnipulate and control
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Early experiments: Donder’s mental chronometry
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Set up experiment with series of light flashes in which the subject had to detect what side the flash was on
The speed of mental processes can be measured 100 millisecond gap between stimulus detection and recognition Detection + identification + recognition = detection+ recognition + 100 ms Mental Chronometry Allows us to measure otherwise invisible cognitive processes Requires a model of the processes that are involved |
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Introspection technique
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Process of looking inward, reporting elements of an experience as they observed specific phenomenon
Titchener utilized in structuralism Required smart verbal people and was unreliable We don’t know why we feel a certain way about something at some time Very open to err |
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Structuralism
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Minds can be broken down into components
Sensations and thoughts These components can be explored through introspection Unreliable, and required very specific person – really left the question of why? |
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Functionalism
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William James
How does the mind help people to adapt to their environment? Influenced by Darwin Thinking developed because it was adaptive – survival |
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Behaviorism
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John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner
Should look at behavior not “mental processes” Science is rooted in observation You cannot observe a thought or emotion but you can observe people behavior as they respond to stimulus Utilized conditioning Rewarding desired behaviors and punishing unwanted behaviors |
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Wundt
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Wilhelm
Measured the time lag between people’s hearing a ball hit a platform and their pressing a telegraph key One tenth of a second when pressing as soon as heard sound Two when asked to press once they perceived the sound Wanted to measure mental processes- “atoms of the mind” |
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James
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See functionalism
Encouraged explorations of down-to-earth emotions, memories, willpower, habits, and moment-to-moment streams of consciousness |
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Watson
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See behaviorism (1920s-1960s)
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The Fall of Behaviorism
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Couldn’t explain failure of conditioning in animals
Couldn’t explain human language Developments in brain research rendered some information useless People refused to accept that mental states and representations didn’t exist New models used to replace it |
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Evolutionary psychology
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The mind is a product of evolution
Successful cognitive processes survived Cultural universality |
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Theory
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An explanation of a phenomenon using an integrated set of principles
General claim about behavior |
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Hypothesis
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Testable prediction, derived from theory
Specific and disconfirmable statement |
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Neurons
Structure |
Dendrite, cell body, myelin sheath (schwann cell), axon, axon terminals
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Function of neurons
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Pass information/ receive and transmit sensory information
Transmit commands to body |
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Action potentials
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Electrical activity
Microelectrodes can record the activity a singly neuron |
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Specificy coding vs. distributed coding
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A stimulus like a face is responded to by a single well-tuned neuron
Grandmother cell? Inefficient and neurons die, wouldn’t recognize anymore A specific stimulus is responded to by a pattern of activations across many neurons |
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Mirror neurons
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Rizzolatti – monkeys observing other monkeys eating – same neurons fired
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy |
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Lobes & associated processes
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Frontal – Language, Inhibitions
Parietal – Somatosensory cortex Temporal – Auditory cortex Occipital – Visual Cortex |
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Broca's
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Controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Damage would disrupt speaking – struggle to speak words |
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Wernicke's
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Controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
Damage leads to speaking only meaningless words Also disrupts understanding |
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Fusiform face area
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Responds strongly to faces but not complex stimuli such as houses
Damage to the area can impair face recognition All objects are harder to recognize when inverted Relationships between the parts |
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Associated processes
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Older than the rest of the brain
Memory Hippocampus Emotion Fight or flight Pleasure centre Olfactory bulb |
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Hemisphere lateralization
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Certain functions are located in one hemisphere or the other
Left – contains Brocas and Wernickes Right – associated with prosody (intonation), and making inferences |
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Single cell recording
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Pros
Directly measures neuronal activity Perfect spatial resolution Perfect temporal resolution No data processing require Cons Incredibly invasive (needle in the brain) Tiny proportion of brain is measured |
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EEG (& ERP)
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Spatial resolution: Poor about 1 square inch
Primarily detects near brain surface Some signals cancel out Temporal: 1 millisecond Good at global problems |
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PET
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Spatial resolution: 5-10 mm (1 million neurons)
Temporal resolution: 1 or more minutes Requires injection of radioactive isotope |
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fMRI
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based on oxygen levels in the blood
Low invasiveness – no needles, no isotopes Loud Claustrophobic |
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Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development (+ what is a stage?)
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Stage is
Grouping of similar changes in schemas (organizing framewoks) during the same time period of development) Characteristics: Invariant: emerge in a fixed order Universal: describe development of all children Four stages are Sensorimotor (0-2) Preoperational (2-7) Concrete operational (7-11) Formal operational (11 and up) |
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Conservation
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Principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape
Most children lack, pour water into a tall thin glass from a short fat glass, the tall thin glass has more |
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Attachment:
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A strong emotional bond between caregiver and child
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Harlow's monkeys
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Attachment is a deep psychological need
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the "strange situation"
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Infant and mom play in a laboratory
Mother leaves (stranger arrives) Infant’s reactions observed Mother returns Infant’s reactions observed Noted three different responses or attachment styles Secure Avoidant Anxious-ambivalent |
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Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasonings
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Preconventional
Stage 1 – obedience and punishment orientation (taking a cookie is wrong because you get a time out) Stage 2 – Naively egotistic orientation (you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours) Conventional Stage 3 – Good boy/girl orientation (disappointment avoidance) Stage 4 – Law and Order orientation (stealing is wrong because it’s against the law) Post-conventional Stage 5 – Contractual/Legalistic orientation (I confessed to the crime but I was not read my rights so confession does not stand) Stage 6 – Universal Principles orientation (set of individual, universal principles that guide judgments |
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Haidt’s social intuitionists model
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Moral Judgment is a 2 step process
Rests on intuitions and judgments Quick, automatic, gut-level evaluations Influenced by cultural and social factors Moral reasoning happens after the moral judgment has been made to justify the judgment |
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Sensation vs. Perception
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Sensation stems from bottom-up processing
1. Stimulus energy impacts sense receptors 2. Sense organ (eye) transduces the stimulus energy into an electrical code 3. - Perception stems from Top-down processing - This code is sent to the cerebral cortex, resulting in a psychological experience |
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Selective attention:
What’s involved |
Simon and Chabris Demo
Selecting something Focusing on it for cognitive processing Ignoring everything else Attention is limited |
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Evidence
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Personal experience – we can be in a noisy environment and pay attention only to our current conversation
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Implications
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Change blindness
We drastically overestimate our ability to detect changes in the environment and underestimate the attention that different tasks require |
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Top down
Bottom up examples |
duh
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Gestalt principles
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Proximity- things that are closer together are grouped together
Similarity- things that are similar are grouped together Continuation- collinear lines (following the same path) are grouped together Closure- we conceive complete figures from partial information Common fate- parts that move together are grouped together Figure and ground- after detecting boundaries we have to decide which is the object and which the background Symmetry and Area Shading |
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Perceptual constancy
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Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change – the table
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Distance cues (binocular & monocular)
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Binocular cues rely on two eyes
Fixation angle- closer constitutes a sharper angle to the eyes Retinal disparity- less similar images between the eyes Monocular rely on one Relative height – objects higher in our vision are perceived as farther away Relative size- closer objects appear larger than distant ones Perspective cues- parallel lines converge as they recede into the distance, the more they converge the greater the appearing distance Interposition- if one object blocks the image of another, we perceive it as closer Texture gradient – objects are clearer when they are close and fuzzy when they are farther away Motion parallax- closer objects move faster, objects that are stationary may appear to move |
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Weber’s Law, just noticeable difference
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The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Two lights – 8% Two objects must differ in weight by 2% Tones must differ in frequency by .3% |
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trichromatic theory
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The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which, when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color
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Opponent process theory
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The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enables color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
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Place theory vs. frequency theory
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Place- in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
Frequency- in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch |
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Role of frequency & amplitude
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Frequency- the number if complete wavelengths that patss a point in a given time (pitch, long waves-low pitch, short waves-high pitch)
Amplitude- the strength of sound wave determines loudness |
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Storage
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The retention of encoded information over time
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Encoding
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The processing of information into the memory system – for example by extracting meaning
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Retrieval
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The process of getting information out of memory storage
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Sperling’s Partial report experiment
Method |
People asked to remember letters that were flashed for one-twentieth of a second
After the nine letters disappeared people could only report about half of them Then the people were instructed to remember certain rows/columns Rarely missed a letter |
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Sperlings Conclusions
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We have fleeting photographic memory called iconic memory
For a brief time we can recall an entire scene as it actually was With delay the retention rate decreased We also have fleeting memory for auditory sounds called echoic memory Lasts for about 3-4 seconds |
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Serial position effect
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Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
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Primacy
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The effect of being able to recall best the items at the beginning of a list
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Recency
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the effect of being able to recall best the items at the end of a list
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Working memory:
Components & what they do |
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial-information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
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Spacing effect
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The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
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Miller’s magic number
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7 plus or minus 2 meaningful units
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Chunking
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organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically
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Long term potentiation
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An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
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Interference
Proactive |
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
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Interference Retroactive
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The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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Declarative memory/Explicit
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Memory of facts and experience that one can consciously know and “declare”
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Episodic memory
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Personal memory
Mental “time travel” Put yourself back into a previous moment |
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Semantic memory
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The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
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Implicit Memory
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Retention independent of conscious recollection. (also called nondeclarative memory)
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Misinformation effect
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Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
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Gist of Loftus’s experiments
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After watching a video of a car crash participants were asked about what they saw
When more vivid words (smashed) to describe the event, more people were likely to recall having seen glass fragments When asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other = higher speed estimates How fast were they going when they hit each other? When asked if they had seen glass fragments, those who were asked with the word smashed said yes – there was none in video |
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Learning
Classical |
Discovered by Ivan Pavlov
A neutral object comes to elicit a response through association with another stimulus; a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Terms: Unconditioned stimulus (food) Unconditioned response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (bell) Conditioned response (salivation to the bell) Extinction – when conditioned response is weakened due because of lack of U.S. Spontaneous recovery – return of a CS after a period of rest Blocking – having one CS is sufficient, additional CS to signal a US will not be learned |
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Operant
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A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Positive and negative reinforcement Consequences influence the likelihood that a behavior will be performed in the future |
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Observational Conditioning
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Learning by observing others
No direct reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement- seeing other reinforced or punished Bandura |
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Pavlov
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Classically conditioned dogs to salivate when they heard the sound of a bell
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Bandura
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Bobo doll
Observational learning |
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Watson
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Little Albert
Can condition fear, can selectively condition different things |
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Skinner
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Skinner Box
Shaping- reinforcing gradual increases in proximity of a desired behavior |
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Pavlov’s dogs
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Isolated a small dog in a room, secured in a harness, and attached a device to collect its drool
They presented food to the dog and delivered a tone before it was presented After several pairings of the tone with food, the dog began to drool in anticipation of the food, brought on by the tone alone |
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Little Albert
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John B. Watson
How to train specific fears When presenting Little Albert with a white rat, they struck a hammer against a piece of steel behind his head After several times, Albert began to burst into tears at the sight of the rat 5 days later Albert generalized his condition to a fear of rabbit, dog, and a sealskin coat |
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Thorndike’s puzzle boxes
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Cats are placed in a box in which to escape some response is required and reward (pulling lever, pushing bar)
At first cats are slow to escape (trial and error) After many trials cats are quick to escape “Law of Effect”- behaviors that lead to good outcomes are more likely to be repeated; behaviors that lead to bad outcomes are more likely to be avoided |
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Bandura’s bobo doll
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Children watched a film of adult playing with Bobo doll
Played quietly and attacked the doll violently Children who saw the aggressive behavior were more than twice as likely to act aggressively towards the doll Follow-up experiment Adult plays violently with Bobo doll Control, some punished, some rewarded Children who saw reward were more likely to act aggressively Children who saw punish were more likely to behave calmly |
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Mineka’s monkeys
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Fear of snakes is not innate
1 – lab raised monkeys shown videos of wild monkeys reacting to a live boa; afterward showed fear of rubber snake, would cross it for a peanut 2 – Video is spliced with toy snake, flower, rabbit and crocodile; wild monkey shown showing fear of all the above; lab monkeys only show fear to the toy snake, and the crocodile |
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Reinforcement schedules
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Partial (intermittent)- responses are sometimes reinforced sometimes not
Fixed-ratio schedule- reinforce after a specific number of responses Variable-ratio schedule- reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses Fixed-interval schedule- reinforce the first response after a fixed time period Variable-interval schedule- reinforce the first response after varying time intervals |
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Strength/ weaknesses of 3 theories of concept/category formation
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Classical
Set of necessary and defining features that describe the concept Will pick out all that is a member and nothing that isn’t Hard to define necessary and sufficient features Ambiguity – hard to decide what definitively belongs in each category Typicality – Some examples are better members than others Similarity-based approaches Prototype – a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) Exemplar – concepts are bases on specific examples Theory-based approaches |
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Schemas and scripts
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Schema- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
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Reasoning vs. Problem solving vs. Decision making
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Reasoning – drawing conclusions based on principles and/or evidence
Problem solving – Decision making – bounded rationality, we generally make good decisions given the complexity of our world and the heuristics that we use, sometimes the results are suboptimal Influence by framing and heuristics |
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Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
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Deductive – follows rules
If premises are true, conclusion is true Inductive – Allows us to expand on conclusions Conclusions don’t need to be true, given premise Analogical reasoning Mental models and intuitive theories |
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Algorithm vs. heuristic
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Algorithm- a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error prone – use of heuristics
Heuristic- a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms |
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Representativeness and availability heuristic
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Representativeness – judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent , or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
Availability – estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps due to vividness), we presume such events are common |
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Gambler’s fallacy, belief perseverance, confirmation bias
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Gambler’s Fallacy – People consider alternation to be an important aspect of random sequence
Sequences with “runs” are deemed non-random Belief perseverance – clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Confirmation bias- a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence |
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framing effects
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the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements
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endowment effect
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Objects that belong to us are more valuable than the same object that doesn’t belong to us (the mug was worth more when we were selling it)
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Asian disease problem
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US is preparing for an outbreak of a disease that will kill 600 people
Various cures guarantee various outcomes People are risk-averse for loss and risk-seeking for gains |
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Routine vs. insight
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Insight – a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Routine |
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Functional fixed and mental set
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Functional fixedness – the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
Mental set – a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
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Properties of language vs. levels of analysis
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Properties
Communicative- permits communication between indiv. Arbitrary- no inherent relationship between words and referents Structured- the pattern of symbols isn’t arbitrary Generative- infinite number of meanings Dynamic- changing grammars and new words Levels of analysis Pragmatics (context and discourse) Syntax (word order and grammar) Semantics (meanings of words and phrases) Morphology (sub-lexical units of words) Phonology (sounds of speech) |
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Categorical perception
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Continuous input perceived as discrete
Voice onset time – the time between start of phoneme and the vibration of the vocal cords Perceived as discreet |
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Invariance and segmentation in speech perception
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Meaning of individual words is highly constrained by the surrounding text (what about “bug”)
Speech doesn’t occur in convenient units |
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Whole object assumption and mutual exclusivity principle
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yeah
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Stages of language development
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Cooing – birth- 6 months
Babbling – 6 months One-word utterances – 10-15 months Two-word utterances – 18-24 months |
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Critical period
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A best time to learn a language (first and second)
1st window by age 6-7 2nd window by puberty Afterwards not fluent, content words but poor syntax |
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Language and thought
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Does language shape thought or does thought shape language
Some cultures don’t have a word for any number greater than two, are unable to deal with situations that require such a word, number |
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Functional locations: Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, angular gyrus
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Broca’s – Controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Damage would disrupt speaking – struggle to speak words Wernicke’s – Controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe Damage leads to speaking only meaningless words Also disrupts understanding Angular Gyrus- involve in reading aloud. Receives visual information from the visual are and recodes it into an auditory form, which Wernicke’s area uses to derive its meaning. Damage leaves a person able to speak and understand, but unable to read |
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Psychoanalytic
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Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
Stages: oral (0-18), anal (18-36 months), phallic (3-6 years), Latency (6-7 years), Genital (puberty-on) Sexist, inadequate evidence, poor testability Unconscious forces influence behavior, internal conflict- emotional distress |
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Humanistc
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Pros
Alternative to behaviorism/psychoanalytic Focuses on present and future Introduced self concept Cons Very subjective Too optimistic? |
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Social-Cognitive
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Interaction between environment and personality
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Freud:
Id |
At birth all ID, pleasure principle, immediate & maximal gratification
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Ego,
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Interaction with the environment
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Superego
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Parents and others imparts values to the child
Resolution of phallic stage |
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Defense mechanisms
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Repression – keeps distracting thoughts or feelings buried in the unconscious
Rationalization – creating false or plausible excuses to justify behavior Projection – projecting one’s own state onto another Displacement – diversion of state to another substitute target Reaction formation – behaving in a way opposite fashion in an exaggerated way Sublimation – redirecting motive towards more desirable social ends |
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Jung: collective unconscious
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Concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history (mother as a symbol or nurturance)
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Adler: birth order
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Inferiority complex – social tensions shape personality
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Empirical vs. theory-derived personality assessments
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Empirical – a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
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Projective personality tests
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A personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Physical needs
Security Love Self-esteem Self-actualization |
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Rogers’ conditions for growth
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Genuineness
Accepting (unconditional positive regard) Empathy |
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Locus of control
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External
The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate Internal The perception that you control your own fate |
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Trait theories and their development, including Allport’s & Big 5
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Allport’s Trait theory
3 types of traits Cardinal (altruistic) Central (funny kind) Secondary (preference for hats) Big 5 Openess – imaginative vs. practical Conscientiousness- careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulsive Extraversion –social vs. retiring Agreeableness – soft-hearted vs. ruthless Neuroticism – calm vs. anxious |
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Reciprocal determinism
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The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
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Abnormal behavior vs. disordered behavior
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Disordered behavior – deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional behavior patterns – usually causing distress, harmful dysfunction
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Panic Disorder
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Characterized by panic attacks
Psychological dread that is overwhelming Attacks elicit the disorder Begin to fear the fear Panic attacks do not necessarily signal the disorder |
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Phobias
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Irrational, uncontrollable fear of specific objects or situations
Range in how maladaptive , distressing it is Range in causes |
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OCD
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Obsessions, recurrent thoughts, images
Compulsions: strong urge for repetitive behavior Person recognizes that behavior, reactions are irrational but is unable to control them |
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PTSD
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Arises in the wake of clear trigger: traumatic event
Compare to panic disorder Violent personal assault Repeatedly experiences the ordeal, distressing nightmares, memories, flashbacks Depression, anxiety, angry outbursts |
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MDD
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An episode of intense sadness, loss of appetite, and difficulty in eating, sleeping, concentrating, motivating
Must be >2 weeks |
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Bipolar
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Alternating episodes of depression and mania
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Dysthymia
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A depression that does not meet the full criteria for major depression but is long lasting +2 years
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Schizophrenia
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Severed disturbances in thought, perceptions, emotions, and behavior
Disintegration of one’s personality Thought disorder Delusions Hallucinations Disordered affect & behavior |
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Antisocial
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A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members, May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
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Psychotherapy & focus of different approaches
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Treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
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Founders of different approaches: Freud, Rogers, Ellis & Beck
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Freud- psychodynamic
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Free association
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In a relaxed environment; you say whatever comes to mind; notice how you edit your thoughts when you speak, omitting trivial, irrelevant, shameful things
Assess the flow of thoughts, analyze the resistance, avoidant topics |
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Resistance
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In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
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Transference
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In psychoanalysis, the patients transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)
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Empathy
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Forming the therapeutic alliance
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Reflection
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Using introspection to try and figure out what you emotions are telling you
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Genuineness
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Being open with one’s own feelings, dropping facades, and being transparent and self-disclosing
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Unconditional positive regard
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A caring, accepting, non-judging attitude, which Carl Rogers believed to be conducive to developing self-awareness and self-acceptance
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Counter-conditioning
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A behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behavior; include exposure therapy and aversive conditioning
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Desensitization
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A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli- commonly used to treat phobias
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Aversion therapy
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A type of counter-conditioning that associates and unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
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Token economy
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An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token or some sort exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
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Cognitive and cognitive behavioral therapy
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Negative, self-defeated, undesirable thinking
Therapy Healthier thinking and self talk to reveal and reverse self-blaming |
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Group therapy & family therapy
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Family therapy – therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members
The popularity of support groups seems to reflect a longing for community and connectedness |
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Biomedical approach
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Prescribed medication or medical procedures that act directly on the patient’s nervous system
Anti-anxiety Antipsychotics - schizophrenia Antidepressants Shock therapy Electric current to the brain |
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Cognitive dissonance
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An uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing them. This speaks to the confirmation bias and other such phenomena.
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Role of heuristics & biases in our thinking
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Refer to all the different types of each above. Heuristics and biases are the ways in which our thinking is shaped as to take natural shortcuts in the thinking process by apply ting past and existing knowledge to new situations. While both are helpful in our cognition, we must be aware as self-aware thinkers to not let them cloud are judgment. Heuristic tricks may work in many situations, but we can suffer from functional fixedness and mental sets where our existing heuristics prevent us from adapting new thoughts to new situations. Biases put us at ease in with our own thoughts so that we are not critically re-evaluating everything we know at every point in time.
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Effects of experience in thinking & behavior
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This speaks to the nurture end of the nature/nurture debate as well as the formation of heuristics and biases. Experience shapes our perception through framing and priming. It also incorporates how we are able to retrieve encoded knowledge (modal model). This means that know two people never approach situations exactly the same.
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Top-down vs. bottom up
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This has to do with sensation and perception that feeds into knowledge. Top down is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its compositional sub-systems. In a top-down approach an overview of the system is first formulated, specifying but not detailing any first-level subsystems. Each subsystem is then refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many additional subsystem levels, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. Bottom up is the piecing together of systems to give rise to grander systems, thus making the original systems sub-systems of the emergent system. In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed. Both have relevance.
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Free will vs. determinism
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Here is the philosophy behind the science of the nature/nurture debate. Do we choose our outcomes through our actions and thoughts, or does the combination of chemical and electrical interactions within us determine our personality, behavior, and actions. This will affect therapeutic approaches and how we interact with life. Again, I do not know exactly what she wants emphasized here (I know I suck)
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Stability vs. change
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Not sure how exactly she wants us to apply this. You can really apply this to any of the chapters we have studied. Sorry.
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Nature vs. Nurture
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This is an ongoing debate of the effects biology and society/upbringing/context have on the formation of individual personalities. Are we genetically predisposed towards certain attitudes and dispositions or is there an identifiable development in the life cycle. Most modern scientists agree that both play a factor in the development of our personalities. Nature aspects explain factor into explanations of how we are “wired” to do certain things. Chemical alterations (prescription drugs) aim to shape us through this biological side. Nurture looks to how our parents raised us. This includes the various stages of development many different psychologists have developed (Piaget, Freud, etc). We can identify specific factors that produce later personalities.
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Appeal of attractiveness: evolutionary psych theories
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This is rooted in our ancestors perceptions and needs. Healthy looking people (clear skin, strong hair, symmetrical, free of disease) are more likely to produce strong, healthy babies. You want your baby to be healthy, right? Then you’ll mate with them
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Effects of attractiveness on feelings, feelings on perceived attractiveness
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Not many vocab terms here. People you like or love appear more attractive to you. Attractive is generally symmetrical and “normal” sized
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Relationships: dimensions of attraction
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Physical, Similarity, romantic (compassionate),
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Alameda, CA survey: importance of social ties
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This long term (longitudinal) survey followed similar students through life and found that strong social ties and connections (sociable throughout life) correlate with a healthier, wealthier, and longer life.
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Ingroup bias
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When we view “our” group, however that is created, in a more favorable and individualistic light than others, the “them,” who we degrade and vilify without substantiation.
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Prejudice & stereotypes: causes, ways to decrease prejudice
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You got this. Superordinate goals (which incorporate multiple groups) bring the groups together. Also discussion with diverse participants.
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Obedience
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Milgram’s shock study, how people will submit to authority in surprising ways
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Bystander effect
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Any particular individual is less likely to help with others present (Many factors p. 713)
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Deindividuation
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of self-awareness and restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (group think + passion + anonymous)
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Loafing
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The tendency of people to put less effort when communally accountable when compared to individual accountability
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Facilitation
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You do things faster or “better” when others are around and watching
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Cognitive dissonance
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When we act to reduce the discomfort which arises when two of our thoughts are inconsistent – usually by changing attitudes
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Reciprocity
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Responding to a positive action with another positive action (and neg w/ neg)
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Perceptual contrast
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When we make decisions by comparing two things that seem close to each other to reach a decision
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Door-in-the-face
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Huge request at first expecting a “no”, then ask for a proportionally smaller favor
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Foot-in-the-door
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Tendency for people who first agree to small favors to then acquiesce to larger requests
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Peripheral Route Persuasion
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When people are influenced by incidental cues, like how hot the speaker is
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Central Route Persuasion
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When interested people focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
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Experiments;
o Asch’s line judgment |
Conforming to identifying the “wrong” longest line
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Shaky ridge
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Physiological arousal can increase attraction
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Stanford prison
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Normal students filled violent character roles
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Milgram’s obedience
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Shock Study
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Conformity: pros & cons, Unconscious mimicry
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Unanimity, larger groups, risk or embarrassment, culture, pleasing someone all play into conforming.
We imitate the people around us in speech and action Milgram and Stanford prison experiments where people conformed to do bad things when protest would be expected. |
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Areas within social psychology
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Listed below in the terms and experiments – behavior, conformity, love, bias, prejudice,
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Social Influence
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Ways in which others influence our behavior
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Social Cognition
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How we think about ourselves and others
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