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105 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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IPM |
•Use of Various Procedures to Control Pests •Start With Procedures That Have Least Impact on Environment •Combine With More Aggressive Procedures Until Control Is Attained |
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Pests |
•Insects •Diseases •Weeds |
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Economic Importance of Pests |
-Compete With Desired Species For Food -Decrease Yield -Pest Control Is Additional Production Cost -Reduce Produce Quality -Some Weeds Harbor Pests or Are Poisonous |
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Biological Controls |
•Use of Insectsor Pathogensto Control Pests •Parasitesor Predators •Birds, Bats & Toads |
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Cultural Controls |
-Ways of Modifying Environment to Hamper Pest’s Breeding, Feeding or Shelter Habits •Resistant Cultivars •Crop Rotation •Destroying Crop Debris After Harvest •Planting or Harvesting Date •Proper Pruning |
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Physical/Mechanical Controls |
•Use of Hands-On Techniques & Simple Equipment or Devices to Provide Protective Barrier Between Plants & Pests •Fallowing •Screens on Seed Beds •Row Covers •Handpicking Insects •Water Pressure Sprays•Insect Vacuums |
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Chemical Controls |
•‘Pesticides’ •Botanicals •Stomach Poison Action –Surface or Systemic Insecticides •Contact Action –Materials Applied to Contact Body of Insect –Affect Its Nervous or Respiratory Systems |
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Chemical Applications |
Fumigation Suffocation Desiccation Repellent Action Attraction Action IGRs |
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Animals as Pests |
Insects –Pests & Beneficials Important Orders –Lepidoptera-Butterflies-Larvae Include Stem Borer –Coleoptera -Beetles –Hymenoptera -Ants, Bees Diptera -flies |
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Major Horticulture Insect Pests |
•Aphids •Whiteflies •Scale •Mealybugs •Thrips •Spider Mites •Caterpillars •Beetles •True Bugs •Leafhoppers •Grasshoppers •Slugs/Snails |
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Major Agronomic Insect Pests |
Caterpillars •Borers •Leafhoppers •Grasshoppers •Stink Bugs •Beetles •Rootworms •Maggots •Aphids •Hessian Flies (Wheat) •Weevils |
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Plant Diseases |
•Disease –Harmful Alteration of Normal, Physiological & Biochemical Development of a Plan t•Environmental Disease –Imbalance •InfectiousDisease |
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How Disease Occurs |
Pathogen+ Susceptible Host+ Favorable Environment= Disease |
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Symptoms |
-Abnormal Tissue –Leaf Appearance –Tissue Necrosis –Cankers –Defoliation –Growth Abnormalities |
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Signs |
Mildew Rust |
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Categories |
•Fungi •Bacteria •Viruses •Parasitic Plants •Other Pests –Small Animals •Rodents •Gophers –Birds, Snails & Slug |
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Ecology |
–Relationships of Living Things to Environment & Each Other |
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Plant Ecology |
–Study of Relationships of Plants & Animals to Their Environment & Each Othe |
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Ecosystem |
–Interaction Between All Living Organisms in an Area With Their Environment |
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Plant Ecosystem |
–Interaction Between Plants, Animals, Microbes & the Environment Within a Farm, Ranch, Landscape or Any Physical Environment |
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Cultivated Ecosystems |
•Some of the Organisms, Processes & Interactions of a Natural Ecosystem Are Absent or Heavily Modified •We Humans Intervene! •WeDescribe Plant Production in Terms of Inputs & Ignore Ecological Processes & Interactions |
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Sustainable Production |
Requires Us to Minimize Inputs & Maximize the Contribution of Ecosystem Processes |
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Natural Ecosystem |
Unmanaged, Closed –All Elements Are Recycled Through the Ecosystem –Every Available Niche Tends to Be Filled & Resources Fully Used •Difficult for a New Species to Enter Environment Because It Lacks Unexploited Resources •“EXCLUSION!” –Pure Closed Ecosystems Do Not Often Exist Anymore •Humans Are Frequently Involved |
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Crop Ecosystems |
-1 or a Few Species That Do Not Exploit All Resources •Weeds •Weed Control Strategy? |
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Biomes |
•Collection of Ecosystems With Similar Climate, Soil & Plant Composition •Greater the Difference Between Plant Production System & Pre-Existing Biome, the More Difficult to Sustain That System –Sometimes Impossible |
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Equator |
-Temps & Trade Winds |
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Tropical Rainforests |
–Most Productive Biome –Shallow Soils Low in Nutrients –Low Light Levels –Lianas & Epiphytes |
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Temperate Deciduous Forests |
–Productive in Summer –Trees Save N & P –Thin, Organic-Rich Soil Laye |
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Grasslands & Savannas |
–Dry –Nutrients Recycled Each Year –World’s Most Productive Ag Land |
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Deserts |
Droughts & Poor Ag Practices |
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Tundra |
–Much of Land Is Permanently Frozen –Low Vegetation |
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Wetlands |
–Ecological Buffer Zones –Creation or Restoration Underway |
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Humanity’s Impact on Biomes |
We Influence or Destroy Biomes –Grasslands –Temperate Forest –Tropical Forests •Crop Production = New Biomes •We Need More Food! –Use More Land or Increase Productivity? |
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Leaves & Leaf Structure |
•Raw Materials of Photosynthesis Enter Cells of Leaf –Water & Carbon Dioxide •Products of Photosynthesis Leave Leaf –Sugar & Oxygen |
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Nature of Light |
•Visible Light only Small Portion of Electromagnetic Spectrum •Plants Use Light Energy mostly in Visible Light Range for PS •Red & Blue Wavelengths most Important for PS –Captured by Chloroplasts & Used to Initiate PS Reactions |
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Photosynthetic Reactions |
•Photos (light) •Synthesis (to put together) •Light Energy to Chemical Energy •Life on Earth Depends on this Process •Supplies Our Oxygen |
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PS equation |
6CO2+12H20+ light= C6H12O6+ 6O2+ 6H20 |
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Pigments |
Pigment Is any Substance that Absorbs Light •Color of the Pigment Comes from Wavelengths of Light Reflected |
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Accessory Pigments |
Chlorophyll Is a Complex Molecule •All Photosynthetic Organisms Have Chlorophyll a •Accessory Pigments Absorb Energy that Chlorophyll a Does not Absorb –Chlorophyll b –Xanthophylls –Carotenoids (Beta-Carotene) |
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Chlorophyll |
- Green Pigment Common to all Photosynthetic Cells –Absorbs all Wavelengths of Visible Light Except Green |
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Pigment absorbs light energy |
•Energy Is Dissipated as Heat •The Energy may Be Emitted Immediately as a Longer Wavelength •Energy may Trigger a Chemical Reaction, as in PS –Chlorophyll Triggers a Chemical Reaction when It Is Associated with Proteins Embedded in a Membrane (as in a Chloroplast) |
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Chloroplasts |
•Organelles in a Plant Cell •Location of Photosynthesis |
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3 Membrane Systems where PS takes place: Chloroplast |
1.Outer Membrane 2.Inner Membrane 3.Intertwined & Stacked Network of more Membranes |
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Thylakoids: Chloroplast |
water-like structures |
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Granum/Grana: Chloroplast |
Stack of thylakoids |
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Stroma: Chloroplast |
Area between Grana |
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Photosynthesis Stages |
Light Reactions •Require Light to Occur •Involves Actual Harnessing of Light Energy •Occur in\on Grana Dark Reactions •Do not Need Light to Occur •Involve Creation of Carbohydrates •Uses Products of Light Reaction to Form C-C Bonds of Carbohydrates •Occur in Stroma |
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Light Reactions |
Electron Transfer Photophosphorylation Photolysis (Hill Reaction) |
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Electron Transfer |
Light Strikes Magnesium(Mg) Atom in Center of Chlorophyll Molecule |
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Photophosphorylation |
Phosphate Group Can Be Added to Compound Called Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) –Yields Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) |
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ATP |
ATP = Adenosine---(PO4-)---(PO4-)---(PO42-) •String of 3 Phosphate Groups Is Held Together by Covalent Bonds •When Bond that Attaches 1 of the Phosphate Groups onto ATP Is Broken, It Becomes ADP •Adenosine---(PO4-)---(PO42)+(PO42) +Energy |
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Photolysis (Hill Reaction) |
–2 Water Molecules Are Split into H & O –H Is Attached to a Molecule Called Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP) –It Becomes NADPH2 –O Is Given off as O Gas –2 H20 + NADP + light=>NADPH2+ O2 |
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Common energy molecules/recylable |
1. ATP 2. NADPH2 |
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Dark Reactions |
•‘Calvin Cycle’ •‘Carbon Reactions Pathway’ •Do not Require Light Energy to Occur |
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2 main steps: Dark reactions |
1. Carbon Dioxide Fixation 2. Sugar Formation |
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Carbon Dioxide Fixation |
CO2Incorporated into a 3-Carbon or 4-Carbon Chain |
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C3 Plants |
–Most Plants Use Enzyme called RuBPCarboxylase (RuBisCo) to carry out CO2Fixation -1stStable Carbon Chain Made from CO2Has 3 Carbons |
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C4 Plants |
–CO2Fixation for Many Plants of Dry or Tropical Origins –Plants Use a Different Enzyme Called PEP Carboxylase for CO2Fixation |
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Bundle sheath cells |
4-Carbon Chain Transported into Bundle Sheath cells where CO2 is released & then immediately fixed by Rubisco as part of C3 cycle |
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Where Does 1st part of Calvin Cycle occur |
–Bundle Sheath cells of C4 plants –Mesophyll cells of C3 plants |
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PEP Carboxylase |
PEP Carboxylase Works Well at Warm Temps but Not Optimum at Cool Temps |
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C4 vs C3: water |
C4 Plants Can Produce 3 Times as Much Dry Matter/Unit of Water as C3 Plants |
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C4 grasses: stomata |
–Can Keep Leaf Stomata Closed during Mid-Day & Extract every Last CO2 Molecule in the Leaf |
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CAM plants |
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism •Another Type of C4PS Carried out only by Xerophytes •Stomata Open at Night |
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CAM stomata |
Day: –CO2 Is Released from the 4-Carbon Product –Normal Light & Dark Reactions occur without Stomata Opening –Allows the Plants to Conserve Water during the Day Night: –Plants Fix CO2into a 4-Carbon Product –4-Carbon Product Stored Overnight in Vacuole |
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Sugar Formation: Calvin Cycle |
Carbon Chain Formed in Step 1 Is Converted to Glucose –C6H12O |
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Photosynthesis Logistics |
•Carbon Dioxide Source –CO2Enters Leaves through Stomata by Diffusion –Dissolves in Water to Become HCO3- •Water Source –From Roots Upward •Oxygen Output –Diffuse out through Stomata –Used in Respiration or other Reactions –Plants Are Net Oxygen Produce -Water Output •Sugar/Glucose Output |
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Factors Affecting Photosynthesis |
-CO2 availbility -Water -Light quality (Color) -Light intenseness (brightness) -Light duration (photoperiod) -Chlorophyll content -Temperature |
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Carbohydrate Translocation |
–Sugars not Moved out of Mesophyll Cells can Inhibit PS –As more Sugars Are Needed, It can Increase the Rate of PS •‘Source-Sink Relationship |
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Respiration equation |
C6H12O6+ 6O2+ 40 ADP + 40 Phosphates →6 CO2+ 6 H2O + 40 ATP |
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Mitochondria |
Membrane-Enclosed Organelles Distributed through Cytosol of Most Eukaryotic Cells |
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Aerobic Respiration |
Requires Oxygen •Main Type of Respiration in most Situations •Breakdown of Glucose back to CO2& Water •Not All Energy in Glucose Is Converted to ATP Formation -40% efficient |
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Resipiration steps |
1. glycolysis 2. Krebs cycle 3. Electron transport chain |
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Glycolysis |
–Breakdown of Glucose to a 3-Carbon Compound Called Pyruvate –Occurs in Cytosol–Some ATP & NADH Are also Formed •Storage Energy Molecules –NADH Is Formed from NAD –Similar Type of Energy-Storing Rx as NADP + H2→NADPH2•NAD + H →NADH |
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Krebs Cycle |
–‘TricarboxylicAcid Cycle (TCA Cycle)’ –‘Citric Acid Cycle’ –Occurs in Mitochondrial Matrix –Cyclic Series of Rxs Break Down Pyruvate to CO2& Carbon Skeletons–Skeletons Used in other Metabolic Pathways –Step where CO2 Is Given off by Plant –10 NADH Are Generated |
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electron transport chain |
‘Oxidative Phosphorylation’ -Transfer Electrons (e-) from NADH to Oxygen -Releases a Lot of Energy -Occurs on Mitochondrial Inner Membrane -Many atp -Water is produced |
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Anaerobic Respiration |
‘Fermentation’ -Low-Oxygen Environments –Wet or Compacted Soil –After Strong Exertion •ATP Still Produced from Glucose but Not as Efficiently as with Aerobic Respiration |
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Anaerobic Respiration equation |
C6H12O6+ O2→2 CH2O5+ 2 H2O + 2 ATP -2 atp formed |
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Photorespiration |
Respiration Driven by Light Energy •Scientists Realized that Some Plants Have Faster Respiration Rate in Light than in Dark •Occurs in Chloroplasts & Other Structures in a Photosynthetic Cell •Rubisco can React with Oxygen to Start Slightly Different Series of Rxs –Result in Loss or No Net Gain of Dry Matter for Plant –Less ATP Is Produced |
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Factors influencing Photorespiration |
O2: CO2Ratio Light Intensity Temperature Net Photosynthesis Rate |
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Factors Affecting Respiration |
Kind of Cell or Tissue Temperature Inside Plant Cell Oxygen Light Glucose CO2 ATP Plant Injury |
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Light Compensation Point |
Level of Light Intensity where rate of Respiration (CO2Produced) Equals Rate of PS (CO2Consumed) -Greater Light Intensity = Net Dry Matter (Carbohydrate Accumulation) •Lower Light Intensity = Net Dry Matter Loss |
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Endosymbiotic Theory |
Mitchondria Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic bacteria Chloroplasts |
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Growth |
•Irreversible Increase in Volume or Dry Weight •Size Increase by Cell Division & Enlargement •Plant Development |
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Factors Affecting Growth & Development |
Genetics Environment –Light -Temperature –Water –Gases –PGRs |
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Light |
•Quantity –Intensity •Quality –Wavelengths •Duration aka Photoperiod |
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Photoperiod |
Length of Light Period in a 24-Hour Day |
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Photperiodism |
Response of Plants to Changes in Photoperiod |
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Phytochrome |
–Hormone that Controls Floral Initiation –Occurs in 2 Forms •Phytochrome Red (Pr), Absorbs Red Light (660 nm)•Phytochrome Far Red (Pfr), Absorbs Far-Red Light (730 nm |
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2 forms Phytochrome reacts |
-With Shorter Nights (Longer Day Length), less Pfr Will Be Changed to Pr •With Longer Dark Periods (Shorter Day Length), more Pfr Will Be Changed Back to Pr •The Ratio of Pfr to Pr at Sunrise Is Critical for Plants that Are Sensitive to Photoperiod |
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Short Day Plants |
Flower in Response to Lengthening Night Period |
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Long Day Plants |
Flower in Response to Shorter Night Period |
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Temperature |
Affects Biochemical Processes in Plants |
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Thermoperiod |
Difference between Day & Night Temperatures |
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Chilling Requirement |
Cold Period so Plants can Break Dormancy & Grow |
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Winter Sunscald |
Southwest Sides of Trunks & Branches |
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Chilling vs. Freezing Temps |
–Chilling Causes Membrane Damage –Freezing Results in Ice Crystal Formation in Cells & Intercellular Spaces |
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Hardening |
Metabolic Responses to Low Temperatures Change Physiology of Tolerant Plants |
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Temperature Tolerance |
Tropical Subtropical Temperate Cool-season vs warm-season |
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Water |
Maintains Turgor in Cells PS Dissolvation Stabilization |
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Gases |
–79% Nitrogen –20% Oxygen –.03% Carbon Dioxide |
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Plant Growth Regulators |
Signals/Messengers Involved in Growth & Development |
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Hormones |
Natural Substance Produced by Plant to Control Activities |
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PGRs |
–Natural or Synthetic Chemicals that Influence Growth & Development when Applied to Plants –Includes Plant Hormones |
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List of Hormones |
Auxins Gibberellins Cytokinins Abscisic Acid (ABA) Ethylene Brassinolides Salicylic Acid Jasmonates Systemin |
