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224 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Identify test sensations and give examples
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Sweet - organic
Sour - acids Salty - Na, NaCl Bitter - coffee, nicotine, quinine, Ca, Mg salts Umami - MSG |
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Describe taste buds
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Supporting cells - insulate receptors
Sensory cells - high turnover, have apical and basal end. Apical end - hairs bathed in saliva, basal end - synapse with cranial nerves Basal cells = stem cells -replacement to sensory cells |
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Gustatory pathway
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Chemical dissolved in saliva --> taste pore --> hairs (chemical action on sensory cell) --> depolarization --> release NT -> NT binds sensory neuron to produce AP
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Gustatory AP go to brain through CN's . Name them
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CN VII - facial
CN IX - glossopharyngeal CN X - vagus |
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Describe gustatory pathway starting with CN's
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CN's - solitary nucleus (medulla) - thalamus - gustatory cortex in parietal lobe
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Name some projections of gustatory nerves
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Hypothalamus, limbic structures, reflexes in stomach + salivary glands
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Identify 7 primary odors and give examples
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Camphoric - moth ball
Musk - parfume Floral - flowers Peppermint Ethereal - pear Pungent - vinegar Putrid - bad smell |
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What secreted mucus to nasal cavity
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Bowmans glands
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Describe olfactory pathway
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Olfactory bulb (mitral/tufted cells) --> olfactory cortex in temporal lobe
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Describe projections of olfactory cortex
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Frontal lobe + thalamus --> interpret and identify smells
Hypothalamus and limbic --> emotional response Stomach --> gastric juice |
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Describe auditory pathway
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Sound --> auditory canal --> tympanic membrane vibrates --> ossicles amplify --> oval window vibrates --> fluid in cochlea moves --> basilar membrane moves up and down, round window moves up and down --> hair cells in organ of Corti bend --> organ of Corti sends signals to cochlear nuclei of medulla --> superior olivary nucleus in medulla --> inferior colliculus in midbrain --> medial geniculate nucleus in thalamus --> auditory cortex in temporal lobe
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Vibration near oval window causes _ frequency sound, while vibration near cohlear apex causes _ frequency sound
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high, low
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If hair cell in organ of Corti bends toward tallest hair you get_, while if it bends away from talles hair you get_
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Depolarization
Hyperpolarization |
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What is called blind spot in retina and why
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Optic disc because there are no rods and cones there
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Pigmented epithelium of retina has the function of ...
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Preventing scattering of light and has phagocytes that destroy old receptors
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Name cell layers of retina
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Outer - rods + cones
Inner - interneurons, amacrine, horizontal, bipolar Ganglion - axons from optic nerve |
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What is photopigment and where is it located
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It is located in the outer segment of photoreceptor
Rods = rhodopsin Cones = pigment sensitive to green, red, blue |
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What does inner segment of photoreceptor contain
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Organelles that synthesize photopigment
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What is a synaptic body in retina
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Contacts bipolar neuron, releases NT with no light stmulation
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Compare rods vs cones
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Rods are:
-monochromatic -have high efficiency in dark -bleached in daylight -located in periphery -low acuity - many rods - 1 bipolar cell Cones are : -trichromatic -have no efficiency in dark -active in daylight -located in fovea -have high acuity -1 cone - 1 bipolar cell |
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Describe visual pathway
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Light excites photoreceptors --> photoreceptors excite bipolar and horizontal cells --> bipolar cells excite amacrine and ganglion cells --> ganglion cell axons form optic nerve and leave through optic disc --> through optic chiasm they cross --> lateral geniculate nucleus --> striate cortex
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Which cells in retina produce AP's
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Ganglion and amacrine
All other cells - receptor potential |
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Projections of optic tract
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Superior colliculus --> control eye muscles
Pretectal nuclei --> pupillary light reflex Suprachiasmatic nucleus --> circadian rhythm, hypothalamus |
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Location of primary motor area
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Pre central gyrus
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What is the lowest level of cortical motor organization
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Primary motor area
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Where is Premotor area located
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anterior to primary motor cortex and lateral to SMA
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What is premotor area responsible for
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More complex pattern of movements, "memory" of some complex motor skills . Also excites groups of primary motor cortex by direct or indirect pathway
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Location of SMA
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anterior to primary motor cortex, medial to premotor area
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What does SMA do
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Control of some bilateral motor skills - climbing
Position of head (eyes) for finer motor movements |
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Describe motor reflexes
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Superior colliculus = visual
Inferior colliculus = auditory Pontine/medullary nuclei = antigravity extensor muscles Vestibular nuclei = change in position and acceleration (brainstem) |
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Describe corticospinal (pyramidal ) tract
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Voluntary movements - motor (60%) + sensory (40%)
Lateral tract - 85 % - cross at pyramids Ventral tracts - 15 % - do not cross |
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Collateral of corticospinal tracts
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vestibular and reticular nuclei
cerebellum and basal ganglia |
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Describe Rubrospinal (corticorubral tracts)
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Voluntary movements
Aids fine movements of distal limbs (fingers) |
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Collateral of rubrospinal tracts
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Cerebellum + brainstem
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Describe reticulospinal tracts
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LATERAL - pontine reticular nuclei - stimulate antigravity extensor muscles - can sustain erect position w/out brain input
VENTRAL - medullary reticular nuclei - inhibit extensors - less active than lateral system In movement - corticospinal + rubrospinal tracts stimulate ventral system to override lateral not to interfere with movement |
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Collaterals of reticulospinal tracts
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Cerebellum + basal ganglia
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Describe vestibulospinal tracts
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From vestibular nuclei in lateral medulla and pons
-Receives input from vestibular apparatus, detects changes in acceleration and position of body |
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Collaterals of vestibulospinal tracts
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Cerebellum + basal ganglia
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Describe tectospinal tract
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From corpus quadragenium of tectum of midbrain (superior + inferior colliculus)
Mediate reflexes - head, neck , upper trunk movements in response to visual and auditory stimuli |
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Collateral of tectospinal tracts
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Cerebellum
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Describe descending tracts
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Converge on alpha motor neurons via interneurons
Alpha motor neurons can be excited by stimulation or disinhibition |
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Damage between cortical motor areas and brainstem leads to
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DECEREBRATE RIGIDITY - decreased activity (input) to medullary reticular nuclei
If also have loss of voluntary control will have SPASTIC PARALYSIS |
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Damage of spinal cord leads to
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FLACCID PARALYSIS or weakness
After period of spinal shock you will see INCREASED reflexes because of decrease in net inhibitory input to spine by motor tracts |
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Damage to nerves leads to
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FLACCID paralysis with DECREASED or absent reflexes
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Describe function of cerebellum
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Cerebellum receives information via spinocerebellar tract. It receives info about movement intention from collaterals and it calculates and corrects it accordingly.
It will correct it by either stimulating cortical motor areas via thalamus or stimulating reflex motor areas via midbrain and brainstem nuclei |
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Describe 3 parts of cerebellum and their functions
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Cerebrocerebellum - planning, initiation, assesment/correction, motor memory
Spinocerebellum - medial body posture, modulates reticulospinal pathways Vestibulocerebellum - eye movements, body equilibrium, modulates vestibulospinal pathways |
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Describe damage to cerebrocerebellum
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DYSMETRIA - voluntary movements overshoot or undershoot target
ATAXIA - erratic gait INTENTION TREMOR - tremor during voluntary movement FAILURE OF PROGRESSION - complicated fast movements DYSARTHRIA - complicated fast speech |
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Describe spinocerebellum damage
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ATAXIA
If you have damage to deep nuclei - decreased extensor tone |
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Damage to vestibulocerebellum
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NYSTAGMUS - slow movement of eyes in one direction followed by rapid movement back
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Basal ganglia are located
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below thalamus
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Globus pallidus main function
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Inhibition of thalamus
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Describe two pathways of globus pallidus inhibitory output
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DIRECT - striatum inhibits globus pallidus which decreases inhibitory thalamic tone
INDIRECT - stimulates globus pallidus which increases inhibition |
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Substantia nigra _ direct pathway, _ indirect pathway
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stimulates, inhibits
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Describe Parkinsons disease
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Damage to substantia nigra causes loss of dopaminergic input, direct pathway is gone, have indirect only --> inhibition of thalamus
Symptoms : -tremor at rest -bradykinesia - decreased voluntary movement -cogwheel rigidity -cognitive losses -swallowing/breathing problems - later stages |
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Describe hemiballismus
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Ballistic voluntary movements
Ipsilateral lesion of superthalamic nuclei |
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Huntingtons chorea
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basal ganglia lesion
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Wilsons disease
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degeneration of globus pallidus + striatum
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Tardive dyskinesia
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Chronic neuroleptic use
Athetosis - snake like movements, tremor at rest |
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Name types of spinal nerves
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Sensory + motor
Sensory can be somatosensory and viscerosensory Motor can be autonomic + voluntary |
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2 types of efferent fibers
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Type A - large + myelinated
Type C - small + unmyelinated |
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Type A fibers
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Large myelinated
1. alpha - control muscle fibers 2. gamma - control muscle spindle by setting its length 3. preganglionic autonomic - myelinated |
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Type C fibers
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small, unmyelinated
Postganglionic autonomic |
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Reflex arc is
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entire pathway of reflex
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Describe general reflex pathway
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From receptors through AFFERENT fibers to CNS nuclei/PNS ganglia --> through EFFERENT fibers send motor signals to effector
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Two types of efferent fibers
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Dynamic and static gamma fibers
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Two types of intrafusal fibers
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Nuclear bag - Ia - primary afferent
Nuclear chain - II - secondary afferent |
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Describe static response
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Slow stretch
-Output directly proportional to DEGREE of stretch -Nuclear chain fibers |
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Describe dynamic response
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-Rapid stretch
- Ia nuclear bag fibers - Outpur directly proportional to RATE of stretch |
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Muscle spindle functions
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- Maintain muscle length and force
-Maintain erect position in anti-gravity muscles -Inform CNS of muscle conditions via spino-cerebellar tract |
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If you have decreased reflexes you have_, if increased reflexes you have_
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lower motor neuron damage, upper motor neuron damage
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Describe clonus, in what condition do you see it
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You see clonus in decerebrate rigidity caused by damage between cortex and brainstem.
It is pendulum like oscillations in limb movement when muscle spindle reflex is facilitated by upper motor neuron |
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Describe withdrawal (flexor ) and cross extensor reflex
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When you have pain to limb, it will cause withdrawal - flexion - of that limb and extension of the other side limb
POLYSYNAPTIC reflex |
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What can cause muscle spasms (cramps)
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1. Local irritation - muscle contraction causes even more irritation
2. Electrolytes (decreased Ca) 3. Ischemia |
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Describe abdominal spasm
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Spinal reflex - peritonitis, appendicitis, surgery
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Describe mass reflex
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Caused by strong pain stimulus or overdistnetion of hollow organs
-Strong flexor response -evacuation of bladder/bowel -increased BP -increased sweating |
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What are autonomic reflexes
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Reflexes w/out CNS input, can be defecation or urination (but also can be with CNS input)
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Vestibular placing reflex
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Limb is extended when it encounters solid object
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Righting reflex
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Restoring upright position
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Name some brainstem reflexes
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Visual, auditory, breathing, autonomic
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What stimulates release of hormone
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NT
Another hormone Pulsatile - circadian rhythm |
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Which hormones are dissolved in plasma
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Amino acid and protein derived hormones - synthesized in advance, stored in vesicles, can be cleaved from pre pro hormones
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Which hormones are bound to plasma proteins
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steroid hormones - from cholesterol, hydrophobic - produced on demand
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Distinguish between extracellular and intracellular hormone receptors
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Extracellular - peptide hormones, activate 2nd messensger system
Intracellular - cytoplasm, hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA |
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Up regulation is _
Down regulation is_ |
Increase # of receptors
Decrease # of receptors |
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ED50
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In dose response curve, 1/2 way between threshold and max response
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Shift right in dose response curve causes_
Shft left causes _ Why? |
decreased affinity - takes more concentration to get same response
Shift left - increased affinity |
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Describe loop between hypothalamus and pituitary
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Hypothalamus releases CRH - cortico releasing hormone which acts on pituitary and it releases ACTH which acts on adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol then goes and inhibits hypothalamus and pituitary
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If you have adrenal insufficiency and not producing any cortisol, what happens to CRH and ACTH
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They will increase, because cortisol is not inhibiting hypothalamus and pituitary any more
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Which part of pituitary is a direct continuation of hypothalamus
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Posterior pituitary
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If you have large pituitary tumor, which structure will it press on?
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Optic chiasm, causing visual disturbances
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Prolactin secreting tumor will cause_ in males, and _ in females
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Visual disturbances
Breast discharge |
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Which hormones are made and stored in hypothalamus but released from posterior pituitary
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Oxytocin + ADH
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Releasing hormones always come from -
What kind of hormones are they |
Hypothalamus
Excitatory |
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Name hormones derived from hypothalamus
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Releasing hormones
DA Somatostatin |
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DA inhibits _
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Prolactin from anterior pituitary
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Somatostatin inhibits _
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Prolactin and growth hormone from pituitary
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Posterior pituitary releases
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ADH and oxytocin
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ADH is stimulated by
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Increased blood osmolality or decreased blood volume
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Main function of ADH
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RETAINING WATER - by increasing number of channels in kidney
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Oxytocin is stimulated by _
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Breastfeeding + child birth
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Functions of oxytocin
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Labor induction
Increased milk ejection Uterus contractions |
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You can see decreased ADH in which disease
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Diabetes insipidus - polyuria, polydipsia
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If your ADH is increased , what systemic effect will it have
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Edema
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Hormones produced by anterior pituitary
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FLAGTOP
FSH LH ACTH Growth hormone TSH Prolactin |
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If you remove hypothalamus from posterior pituitary you will see increase in which hormone
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Prolactin, since its no longer inhibited by DA
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Name 3 zones of adrenal cortex
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Zona reticularis
Zona fasciculata Zona glomerulosa |
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ACTH acts on two zones in adrenal cortex. What are they
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Zona fasciculata and zona reticularis
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Which zone produces cortisol in adrenal cortex
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Zona fasciculata
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Which zone produces androgens in adrenal cortex
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Zona reticularis (very low)
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Which zone produces aldosterone
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Zona glomerulosa
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Cortisol is made from
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cholesterol
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Describe actions of cortisol
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Liver - increase gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
Adipose - lipolysis |
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Main function of aldosterone
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Salt retention
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Renin angiotensin aldosterone system function
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Decrease Na excretion
Retain water and salt |
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Adrenal medulla makes _
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Catecholamines - NE + EPI
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Describe regulation of thyroid hormone
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Hypothalamus releases TRH --> acts on pituitary which releases TSH --> acts on thyroid follicles to produce thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormine inhibits both anterior pituitary and hypothalamus and induces production of somatostatin which also inhibits anterior pituitary
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Name two thyroid hormones
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T3 - 25 %
T4 - 75 % |
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Thyroid gland has two types of cells. Describe and what produce
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Follicular - filled with colloid, produce T3 and T4
Parafollicular - produce calcitonin - decrease Ca in blood |
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3 main stages of thyroid hormone synthesis
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Thyroglobulin synthesis
Iodide uptake Iodothyronine formation |
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Describe thyroglobulin formation
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Produced in ribosomes , rough ER.
Undergoes dimerization and glycosylation in smooth ER Packaged in Golgi, released to colloid |
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Describe iodide uptake
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Requires ATP, concentration above blood level, released to colloid
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Formation of iodothyronine is catalyzed by_
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Thyroid peroxidase
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Iodothyronine is composed of _
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MIT + DIT linked to thyroglobulin
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T4
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2 DIT
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T3
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1 MIT + 1 DIT
|
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Thyroid hormones travel by_
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binding to plasma proteins
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Which thyroid hormone is active form
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T3
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Which symptoms would you have if you had hyperthyroidism
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Excitability
Sweating Weight loss but increased appetite Diarrhea Fatigue Muscle weakness Tremor Protruding eyes |
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Which symptoms would you have if you had hypothyroidism
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Obesity with reduced appetite
Excessive sleeping Mental slowing down Constipation Decreased body temp. |
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Action of IGF1
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Liver - tissue growth
Long bones growth in kids |
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Which anterior pituitary hormone has anti insulin action
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Growth hormone (similar to cortisol)
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Main action of growth hormone
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Makes muscle and adipose resistant to glucose, increases gluconeogenesis
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Describe pituitary dwarfism
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If you lack of GH only you can still go through puberty, just shorter
If you lack GH and other anterior pituitary hormones you will not go through puberty |
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What happens if you have excess GH
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Gigantism
Acromegaly - bones, organs hypertrophy Also insulin resistance and hyperglycemia |
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Three types of cells in pancreas
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Alpha cells - glucagon
Beta cells - insulin Delta cells - somatostatin |
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Insulin functions
|
Growth + differentiation
Glucose transport + glycogen synthesis |
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Which two tissues require insulin
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Muscle and adipose
|
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Effect of insulin on liver
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Facilitates metabolism but doesnt insert transporters as in muscle and adipose
|
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In liver insulin increases_
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Glycogenesis
Glycolysis Protein synthesis Lipogenesis |
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In muscle insulin increases
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Glycogenesis
Protein synthesis Glucose oxidation |
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In adipose insulin increases
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Lipogenesis
|
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In liver glucagon increases _
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Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis Ketogenesis Lipolysis |
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In pancreas glucagon increases_
|
Production of insulin
|
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Describe general features of diabetes
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Frequent urination
Increased thirst and appetite Weight loss |
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Describe type I DM
|
Insulin dependent
Inadequate insulin production Insulin gene mutation AUTOIMMUNE (usually not inherited) REQUIRES insulin injections |
|
Describe Type II DM
|
Non insulin dependent
Insulin RESISTANCE - receptor defect Normal or increased levels of insulin in blood, but it doesnt work Strong genetic component |
|
Treat for type II DM
|
Diet + exercise
Sulfonylurea drugs In some cases insulin treatment |
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What is similar and different between type I and II DM
|
Both have high glucose
Type I - low insulin Type II - high insulin |
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Describe action of PTH
|
Acts on kidney and bone, released when there is LOW Ca in blood
-Activates osteoclasts to break down BONE - release Ca in blood and P -Increase Ca reabsorption from food -Promotes activation of vitamin D in KIDNEY --> increase Ca reabsorption -Decrease P reabsorption |
|
Describe action of vitamin D
|
acts on intestine + bone
-Increase intestinal abdorption of Ca - Increase bone formation and resorption -Small increase in kidney Ca reabsorption |
|
Calcitonin acts on _
|
Bone - deactivates osteoclasts to stop breaking bone down
|
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If you have excess PTH, you also have _
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1) Hypercalcemia
2) Hypercalcinuria - renal stones 3)Hypophosphatemia 4) Decreased bone mass |
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If you have lack of PTH , you have _
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1) Hypocalcemia
2)Hyperphosphatemia 3) Increased bone mass |
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If you have excess vitamin D, you would have same effects as with increased_
|
PTH
|
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Lack of vitamin D causes
|
Rickets
|
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Temporal vs Spatial summation
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Temporal - one neuron fires at different times
Spatial - two neurons fire at same time |
|
Sympathetic nervous system is also called_
Parasympathetic is also called _ |
Thoracolumbar
Craniosacral |
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Length of pre vs post in parasympathetic neurons
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Long pre, short post
|
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Ratio of pre vs post in parasympathetic neurons
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1:1
|
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Preganglionic parasympathetic receptor
|
Nicotinic
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Postganglionic parasympathetic receptor
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Muscarinic
|
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Muscarinic receptors 1, 3, 5 are _
2, 4 are _ |
excitatory
inhibitory |
|
Nicotinic receptor vs Muscarinic receptor
|
Nicotinic - chemically mediated
Muscarinic - mediated by G protein But both activated by Ach |
|
Ratio of pre to post in sympathetic
|
1 : many
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Preganglionic sympathetic receptor
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Nicotinic, activated by Ach
|
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Postganglionic sympathetic receptor
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Adrenergic, activated by NE
|
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In adrenal gland preganglionic neurons synapse directly on_
|
Adrenal medulla
|
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What acts as postganglionic neurons in adrenal medulla
|
CHROMAFFIN CELLS - release EPI - 80%, and NE - 20%
|
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In sweat glands postganglionic sympathetic cells are different from rest because they _
|
release Ach (not NE) and bind muscarinic receptor (not adrenergic)
|
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Beta 1 adrenergic receptor binds_, while alpha 1 binds_
|
cAMP
IP3 |
|
Eyes - parasympathetic
|
Pupil CONSTRICTION
Circular + ciliary muscle contraction - M3 |
|
Eyes - sympathetic
|
Pupil DILATION
Radial muscle contraction - alpha 1 receptor |
|
Heart - parasympathetic
|
Slow down SA node, decrease contractility - M2
|
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Heart - sympathetic
|
Increase SA node, increase contractility - beta 1 receptor
|
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Blood vessels - parasympathetic
|
Very little dilation
|
|
Blood vessels - sympathetic
|
DILATION - beta2
CONSTRICTION - in skin and internal organs - alpha1 |
|
Bronchi - para
|
Bronchiolar smooth muscle CONTRACTION - M3
|
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Bronchi - symp
|
Bronchiolar smooth muscle relaxation - beta 2
|
|
Intestines - para
|
Increase motility and tone, sphincter relaxation, enzyme secretion
|
|
Intestines - symp
|
Decrease motility and tone
Sphincter CONTRACTION |
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Kidney - para
|
No effect
|
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Kidney - symp
|
Renin release + increase ADH - beta 1
|
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Bladder - para
|
Bladder CONTRACTION + neck RELAXATION
|
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Bladder - symp
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RELAXATION of detrusor + contraction of neck
|
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Penis - symp
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Ejaculation
|
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Penis - para
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Erection (Point and Shoot)
|
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Uterus contractions are mediated by _ nervous system, relaxation by _
|
Both,
Sympathetic |
|
Skin has _ nervous activity only
|
Sympathetic - increase sweat gland activity + hair smooth muscle contraction
|
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Effect of symp. system on adipose
|
Increased lipolysis
|
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Liver has mostly _ effect of nervous system
|
Sympathetic - increased glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
|
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_ nervous system increases insulin, while _ decreases it
|
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic |
|
Baroreceptors location
|
Carotid sinus + aortic arch
|
|
Path of carotid sinus baroreceptors
|
Carotid sinus nerve (Herings) to glossopharyngeal nerve (brainstem)
|
|
Path of aortic arch baroreceptors
|
Vagus nerve to nucleus solitaris (medulla)
|
|
Which baroreceptors are more sensitive
|
Carotid sinus because they have thinner walls
|
|
Name CNS medullary centers
|
Vasoconstrictor (pressor ) - sympathetic
Vagal - parasympathetic |
|
Baroreceptors do not respond above _ or below _ mm Hg
|
180
60 |
|
If you clamp carotids, what will happen to BP
|
It will spike and remain high until carotids are released, then returns to normal
|
|
Receptor firing rate depends on
|
Rate and absolute BP
|
|
In systole receptor firing rate is _, in diastole its _
|
higher
lower |
|
Can baroreceptors be used for long term control of BP, if not why not
|
No, they adapt to maintained mean BP, for long term use RENAL SYSTEM by controling amount of body fluid
|
|
Normal mean pressure
|
94 mm Hg
|
|
Beta 1 receptors _ heart rate and contractility
|
INCREASE
|
|
Alpha receptors are responsible for
|
Vasoconstriction
|
|
_ receptor decreases heart rate and conduction velocity
|
M2
|
|
What happens when pressure increased
|
Increased baroreceptor stretch --> increase afferent input to CNS --> pressor (vasoconstrictor) center is inhibited -> causes vasodilation --> decreases heart performance --> decreases BP
Cardioinhibitory (vagal)center is stimulated, decreases heart rate --> BP falls |
|
What happens when pressure is decreased
|
Decreased baroreceptor firing --> removes inhibition from pressor vasoconstrictor center (symp)- cardioinhibitory center inhibited --> increases heart rate --> increases BP
|
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If you stand on your head what happens to BP and heart rate
|
Heart rate DECREASES --> gravity on carotid sinus stretches it --> will think increased pressure and will decrease it
|
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Febrile illness means you have_
|
Fever
|
|
Heat production occurs as _
|
By product of metabolism
|
|
Heat loss occurs via _
|
Skin and respiration
|
|
Describe transfer of heat within body
|
Insulation = body fat
Forced convection = movement of blood Vasodilation - remove heat Vasoconstriction - conserve heat |
|
Heat transfer from body :
|
1. Radiation - 60%
2. Conduction- 3 % 3. Convection - 15 % air + water 4. Evaporation - 22 % - sweat |
|
Heat retention is achieved via _
|
1. Vasoconstriction
2.Clothing 3. Shivering - break ATP by muscle contraction 4.Increase thyroid hormone --> increase metabolism |
|
Hypothermia can cause
|
Ventricular fibrillation
|
|
Two types of thermoreceptors and where located
|
Cold - periphery, extremities
Warm - core + CNS |
|
Heat loss center is in
|
Anterior hypothalamus
|
|
Heat conservation center is in
|
Posterior hypothalamus
|
|
Set point is a _
|
Reference temperature
|
|
Fever is _
|
increase in set point, caused by pyrogens which induce action of IL1
|
|
If patient presents with onset of chills (shivering, pale) it means _, while if patient presents with "crisis/flush" (sweating, red skin) it means _
|
Dangerous, set point is high, immune system did not cleal pyrogens
Patient is getting better, set point has been reset to normal |
|
Polyomyelitis is an example of _
Name symptoms too |
Lower motor neuron damage
-Muscle atrophy -Flaccid paralysis -Decreased reflexes |
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Stroke is an example of _
Name symptoms too |
Upper motor neuron damage
Increased reflexes Increased knee jerk reflex, ankle clonus Positive Babinski reflex |
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Positive Babinski sign means you have _
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Plantar dorsiflexion
Flaring of toes Normal in infants, but disappears in adults, if present means you have brain damage |