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62 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the main assumption/aim of the physiological approach to psychology? |
That behaviour and experiences can be explained by physiological changes. It considers the brain, the nervous system and other biological factors, e.g. hormones to explain behaviour. |
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Strengths of the physiological approach |
1. Psychology as a science debate - measurements are precise, use of empirical quantitative data - e.g. uses chemicals, hormones etc. to explain our behaviour. 2. Application - discoveries have led to treatment programs/drugs which affect behaviour. 3. Sophisticated use of machinery and lab experiments means results are precise - clearly show how changes in biological features effects behaviour. |
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Weaknesses of physiological approach |
1. Reductionist point of view. Only looks at biological factors/brain and fails to take into consideration environment to explain behaviour. 2. Ecological Validity - lab experiments and not conducted in real life situations. 3. Costly and time consuming - due to the fact that they use expensive and modern equipment. |
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What is the aim of the Maguire et al. case study? |
To investigate whether structural changes could be detected in the brains of London taxi drivers and to investigate the functions of the hippocampus in spatial memory. |
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Apart from spatial navigation, there is evidence to suggest that the hippocampus also plays a role in what other function? |
Short term memory |
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Maguire et al. - Method |
Quasi-experiment |
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Maguire et al - participants |
All healthy, right-handed males with healthy medical, neurological and psychiatric profiles.
16 London taxi drivers - mean age 44yrs, age range - 32-62, all had been taxi drivers for over 1.5 years.
50 Control participants - mean age 44yrs, age range - 32-62, none were taxi drivers. |
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Maguire et al.
What were the two dependent variables? |
1. VBM
2. Pixel count |
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Maguire et al.
What has previous research shown that hippocampus size is linked with? |
Hippocampus size is related to spatial memory. |
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Maguire et al.
What were the independent variables? |
Whether participants were taxi drivers or not. |
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Maguire et al
What was the design? |
Independent design |
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Maguire et al.
Describe the experimental group. |
16 right-handed male, licensed London taxi drivers.
Age range 32-62 years (mean age 44 years)
All had licence for at least 1.5 years (range 1.5-42 years, mean 14.3 years).
All had healthy medical profiles |
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Maguire et al.
How were the control group matched? |
- age range and mean age
- gender (male) |
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Maguire et al.
What three areas of the hippocampus were studied? |
posterior, body and anterior |
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Maguire et al.
What does VBM do? |
It identifies grey matter density in MRI scans. |
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Maguire et al.
How was the pixel count controlled? |
There was an independent counter who didn't know which group each participant's scan was from. |
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Maguire et al.
Which area of the hippocampus was more developed in taxi drivers? |
posterior |
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Maguire et al.
Which are of the hippocampus was more developed in non-taxi drivers? |
anterior |
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Maguire et al.
Which two variables showed a positive correlation? |
Time spent as a taxi driver and volume of hippocampus. |
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Maguire et al.
Which two variables showed a negative correlation? |
Size of anterior hippocampus and time spent as a taxi driver. |
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What conclusion did Maguire et al. reach about the purpose of the posterior hippocampus? |
It deals with learned information, e.g. taxi drivers' 'the Knowledge' (the test that they take to become licensed) |
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Maguire et al
What does correlation tell us about whether someone is predisposed to become a taxi driver because they are born with a large hippocampus? |
Correlation suggests that it is a result of being a taxi driver, not a pre-existing structure, which predisposes a person to become a taxi driver. |
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Maguire et al.
How could these finding be used by the medical profession? |
They could be useful for rehabilitation of brain-injured patients as they suggest that brain structures can be altered. |
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Maguire et al.
The left posterior hippocampus is larger in taxi drivers but no correlated with time. What do Maguire et al. conclude this area is used for? |
Memory not requiring spatial element, e.g. names, faces, and so on. |
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Maguire et al.
Why were there no overall differences in pixel counts when we know that there were differences in taxi drivers' and non-taxi drivers' hippocampi? |
Taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi but smaller anterior hippocampi. |
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Maguire et al.
What type of scan was used to collect the data? |
MRI |
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Maguire et al.
What was the procedure for this study? |
Structural MRI scans were obtained. |
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Maguire et al. - Results |
-There was significantly more grey matter volume found in the brains of taxi drivers than of the control group in right and left hippocampus only, not the other parts of the brain. - Only found in posterior hippocampus. - There were no overall differences in the pixel count. - Taxi drivers had a larger posterior hippocampus but a smaller anterior hippocampus. |
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Maguire et al. - Conclusions |
. Data correlated between time spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the hippocampus. . Positive correlation was found only in the right posterior hippocampus. . Negative correlation was found between anterior hippocampus and time spent as a taxi driver. . Taxi drivers had a larger posterior hippocampus and a smaller anterior hippocampus. . Correlation suggests that this is a result of being a taxi driver, not a pre-existing structure that predisposes a person to become a taxi driver. . Posterior hippocampus deals with previously learned information e.g. taxi drivers' 'knowledge' or test that they take to become licensed. As this is fine-tuned, the posterior hippocampus becomes larger. . Left hippocampus size does not correlate with length of time as a taxi driver but the left posterior is still higher in taxi drivers, so probably memories that don't require spatial element e.g. names, faces, and so on. . Brain structures can change depending on input/function. . This plasticity is useful for rehabilitation of brain-injured patients as it suggests that brain structures can be altered. |
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Maguire et al. - Evaluation - Strengths |
1. Correlational analysis helped to prove that there was a strong positive link. 2. MRI scans provided vast amounts of quantitative data. 3. Not possible for participants to respond to demand characteristics. 4. Ethical - Everybody gave consent. 5. Many controls |
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Maguire et al. - Evaluation - Limitations |
1. Normally difficult to make conclusions from Quasi-experiments. 2. Not ecologically valid (MRI scan) 3. MRI scanning is a costly technique. 4. All male sample - may be a difference with female and left-handed people. |
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Which method was used by Dement and Kleitman?
a. laboratory experiment b. field experiment c. natural experiment d. quasi experiment |
Laboratory experiment |
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What was the design used by Dement and Kleitman? a. independent measures design b. matched pairs design c. repeated measures design d. single-subject design |
Repeated measures design |
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How did Dement and Kleitman ensure no researcher contact for dream recall? a. spoke into tape recorder b. locked researcher in their room c. woke participants by bell d. had fully automated laboratory |
Spoke into tape recorder
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Dement and Kleitman - Which substances were participants not allowed to have on the day of test? a. sugar and caffeine b. alcohol and chocolate c. prescription drugs and caffeine d caffeine and alcohol |
caffeine and alcohol |
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Dement and Kleitman - Which is not a hypothesis? a. participants in REM sleep are more likely to recall dreams b. Participants will dream better without caffeine. c. Participants woken after 5 or 15 minutes will be able to estimate dream length. d. Eye movements will link to content of recalled dream. |
Participants will dream better without caffeine. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Which was one of the independent variables? a. whether woken in REM or non-REM sleep. b. whether male or female. c. whether asleep or awake. d. whether in lab or at home. |
Whether woken in REM or non-REM sleep |
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Dement & Kleitman - Which one was a dependent variable? a. estimate of length of dreaming. b. whether brain wave patterns changed. c. whether the participant woke up or not. d. how long the participant slept for |
Estimate of length of dreaming |
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Dement & Kleitman - How many participants?
a. 11 adults b. 9 adults c. 5 males d. 3 females |
9 adults
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Dement and Kleitman - What was measured by machine in sleep lab (2)? a. muscle paralysis. b. eye movement. c. brain waves. d. dreaming |
Eye movement brain waves |
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Dement and Kleitman - Which had most dream recall?
a. awakenings in REM sleep? b. awakenings within 8 minutes of end of REM sleep. c. awakenings in non-REM sleep d. awakenings within 8 minutes of start of REM sleep |
awakenings in REM sleep |
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Dement & Kleitman - When were patients woken to see if dream content linked to eye movements? a. 8 minutes after REM sleep finished. b. after at least 1 minute of eye movement pattern. c. after 5 minutes of eye movement pattern d. after 15 minutes of eye movement pattern |
after at least 1 minute of eye movement pattern |
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Dement & Kleitman - Which dream was recalled after mainly vertical eye movements? a. no dreams recalled. b. two people throwing tomatoes at each other. c. talking to people. d. standing at bottom of tall cliff looking up at climbers. |
Standing at bottom of tall cliff looking up at climbers. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Which dream was recalled after no eye movement? a. climbing ladders. b. fighting. c. driving car d. throwing netballs. |
Driving car
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What did Dement and Kleitman conclude? a. Dreams occur spontaneously on waking. b. It is most likely that REM sleep is the only time we dream. c. There is no link between REM sleep and dreaming. d. Brain wave patterns dictate dream content. |
It is most likely that REM sleep is the only time we dream. |
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Dement & Kleitman - What was the conclusions about dreams recalled in non-REM sleep? a. The EEG was faulty. b. People do dream in non-REM sleep. c. Awakenings were within 8 minutes of REM sleep, therefore memory of REM dream. d. Dreaming and REM sleep are not linked at all. |
Awakenings were within 8 minutes of REM sleep, therefore memory of REM dream. |
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How many participants did Dement and Kleitman study in detail?
a. 5 b. 9 c. 4 d. 7 |
5 |
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Dement & Kleitman - Which of these was not an independent variable? a. the type of sleep, REM or non-REM b. the time asleep, 5 or 15 minutes. c. the pattern of eye movement. d. the dream content |
The dream content |
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Dement & Kleitman - Which eye movement pattern gave a dream recall of two people throwing tomatoes? a. mainly vertical. b. mainly horizontal. c. no eye movement d. random eye movement |
mainly horizontal |
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Dement & Kleitman - Which length of REM sleep were participants most accurate in assessing? a. 15 minutes. b. 5 minutes. c. 10 minutes. d. All the same |
5 minutes
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Dement and Kleitman - What does an EMG measure? a. brain waves b. eye movement c. muscle movement d. galvanic skin response |
Muscle movement |
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Dement & Kleitman - Aim |
To rigorously test the relationship between eye movements and dreams. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Hypotheses |
1. Participants who are woken during REM sleep are more likely to recall dreams.
2. Participants who are woken after 5 or 15 minutes will be able to say how long they have been dreaming.
3. Eye movements will link to the content of the recalled dream. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Participants |
9 adults: 7 males 2 females.
5 studied intensively 4 minimal data used to confirm findings from the five studied intensively. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Method and design |
Laboratory experiment repeated measures design |
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Dement & Kleitman- Conditions |
Non=REM sleep, characterised by high-voltage, slow-activity pattern or frequent, well-defined sleep spindles with low-voltage background.
REM sleep characterised by low-voltage, fast-activity patterns |
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Dement & Kleitman - Independent variables |
1. Whether woken in REM or non-REM sleep. 2. Whether woken after 5 or 15 minutes. 3. Movement of eyes. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Dependent variables |
1. Whether dream recalled. 2. Estimate of length of dreaming 3. Content of dream. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Procedure
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Adults reported to sleep lab just before normal bedtime. No alcohol or caffeine allowed that day. Electrodes were attached to record: eye movement, brain waves. At various times during the night, participants were woken: some randomly, some in pattern, some at the whim of experimenter. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Controls |
There was no contact between experimenter and participants during dream recall. They were woken by a bell. They spoke into a tape recorder. No caffeine or alcohol were allowed - both could affect REM sleep. Experimenter checked participants' eye movements when awake to see eye movement when looking in the distance. |
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Dement & Kleitman - Results |
Hypothesis 1: Awakenings in REM sleep: 152 dream recall; 39 no dream recall. Awakenings in non-REM sleep: 11 dream recall; 149 no dream recall. NB: some dream recall in non-REM sleep, mostly within 8 minutes of end of REM sleep.
Hypothesis 2 Woken after 5 minutes: 45 correct estimates; 6 incorrect estimates. Woken after 15 minutes: 47 correct estimates; 13 incorrect estimates.
Hypothesis 3 Participants were woken after at least 1 minute of pattern. a. mainly vertical eye movements; Dream recall included: standing at bottom of tall cliff looking up at climbers, climbing ladders and looking up and down them, shooting netballs-looking down to pick up the ball and up to the net. b. mainly horizontal eye movements: dream recall included - watching two people throw tomatoes at each other.
c. both vertical and horizontal eye movements: dream recall included - talking to groups, close up activity, e.g. fighting.
d. very little or no movement (brain waves still indicated REM sleep): dream recall included - watching something in the distance, driving car |
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Dement & Kleitman - Conclusions |
It is most likely that REM sleep is only time that we dream. Dreams progress over time rather than happen spontaneously. The pattern of the REMs was related to visual imagery of the dream. |
