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66 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Action Potential |
Na channels open, flows in, creates depolarization Electrical impulse travels through cell Followed by repolarization K+ leaves All or nothing principle |
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Acetylcholine |
Peripheral & central nervous system 2 types of receptors - muscarinic & nicotinic Causes of muscles to contact REM sleep Sleep wake cycle Learning & memory Nicotine mimics receptors = enhanced memory & alertness Degeneration of ACh cells in hippocampus = memory deficits in Alzheimers |
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Dopamine |
Personality, mood, memory, & sleep Contributes to schizophrenia (elevated) Regulation of movement Tourettes = elevation Parkinsons = degeneration |
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Norepinephrine |
Mood, attention, dreaming, learning, & some autonomic functions Catecholamine hypothesis = depression is caused by low norepinephrine |
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5HT |
Usually inhibitory Mood, hunger, temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression, & migraines Elevated = schizophrenia, autism, anorexia Decreased = aggression, depression, suicide, bulimia, ptsd, ocd |
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GABA |
Inhibitory Anxiety Benzos & other depressants enhance GABA |
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Glutamate |
Excitatory Learning & memory Formation of longterm memory Excitotoxicity = seizures & stroke related brain damage, Huntington's, Alzheimers |
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Spinal cord |
Quadriplegic = loss of sensory & voluntary movement, damage to cervical level Paraplegic = damage to thoracic level results in loss of voluntary functioning of legs |
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Cerebral Ventricles |
Hydrocephalus = obstruction of flow of CFS leads to fluid buildup & enlargement of ventricles Large ventricles in schizophrenia |
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Peripheral Nervous System |
Nerves relay messages between CNS & sensory organs, muscles, & glands Somatic nervous system = sense receptors in CNS to motor nerves to skeletal muscles, movements are voluntary Autonomic = sensory nerves from viscera to motor to smooth muscle, cardiac, & glands, primarily involuntary -Sympathetic = arousal & expending energy, flight or fight -parasympathetic = conservation of energy, digestion & rest |
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5 stages of CNS development |
1. Proliferation: new cells begin at 2.5 weeks gestation 2. Migration: neurons get to final destination beginning at 8 weeks 3. Differentiation: develop axons & dendrites 4. Myelination: glial cells insulate 5. Synaptogenesis: |
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Neuroimaging Techniques |
CT & MRI show structure CT horizontal slices MRI cross-sectional images, better images, more angles, 3D PET & SPECT functional images PET show blood flow, glucose metabolism, o2 consumption; assess disease SPECT lower resolution |
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Hindbrain |
Medulla Pons Cerebellum |
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Medulla |
Hindbrain Flow of info between spinal cord & brain Swallowing, coughing, sneezing Vital functions like breathing, heartbeat, & BP Damage is fatal |
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Pons |
Hindbrain Connects cerebellum halves Integrates movement from right & left sides |
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Cerebellum |
Hindbrain Balance & posture Coordinated & refined motor movement Sensorimotor learning Abnormalities = schizophrenia, autism, adhd Damage = ataxia: slurred speech, severe tremors, loss of balance |
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Forebrain |
Thalamus Hypothalamus Basal ganglia Limbic system: amygdala, hippocampus, & cingulate cortex |
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Thalamus |
Forebrain Motor activity, language, memory Relay station for incoming sensory information to cortex, except olfaction Wernicke - Korsakoff: thiamine deficiency, alcoholism, atrophy of neurons, mental confusion, abnormal eye movements & ataxia, severe anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, confabulation |
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Hypothalamus |
Forebrain Vital functions, hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, temperature, movement, emotional reactions Damage = uncontrollable laughter, intense rage & aggression Maintain homeostasis through influence on ANS & glands SCN: circadian rhythms |
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Basal ganglia |
Forebrain Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra Planning, organizing, & coordinating voluntary movement Motor expression of emotion Huntington's, Parkinsons, Tourettes, OCD, ADHD Mania, depression, OCD, psychosis |
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Limbic system |
Forebrain Memory, mediation of emotion Amygdala: integrates, coordinates, & directs motivational & emotional activities; attaches emotions to memories; flashbulb memories; bilateral lesions = substantially reduce fear & aggression; Kluver-Bucy = lesions + hypersexuality, psychic blindness Hippocampus: learning & memory, processing spatial, visual & verbal info; converts short term memory to longterm memory |
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2 hemispheres of cerebral cortex |
Contralateral Representation: Left controls right Brain lateralization: -left: letters & words, language sounds, verbal memory, reading & writing, positive emotions, analytical -right: facial recognition, complex geometric patterns, music and other non language sounds, nonverbal memory, emotional content of language, since of direction, negative emotions, intuitive Split brain patients: |
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Frontal Lobe |
Primary motor cortex: involved in execution of movement, damaged results in loss of reflexes loss of muscle tone Supplementary motor area: planning and control of movement , learning new sequences, mediates motor imagery Broca's area : major motor speech area, located in inferior frontal region, damaged produces expressive Aphasia characterized by difficulties in producing spoken and written language Prefrontal cortex: Freddy of complex behaviors including emotion, memory, attention, self-awareness, and higher order cognition, damage linked to schizophrenia ADHD and dementia , - damage to Dorsal lateral area results in convexity dys executive syndrome - damage to orbital frontal area produces orbital frontal disinhibition syndrome - damage to medial frontal area produces frontal apathetic syndrome |
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Temporal lobe |
Contains auditory cortex and Wernicke's area Lesions in auditory cortex causes agnosia, auditory hallucinations, other disturbances and auditory sensation Wernicke's area: comprehension of language, Wernicke's aphasia characterized by severe deficits in language comprehension and and abnormalities in language production Mediate encoding coding, retrieval, and storage of long-term declarative memories Lesions cause retrograde and anterograde amnesia |
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Occipital lobe |
Visual cortex responsible for visual perception, recognition, and memory Damage causes visual agnosia, visual hallucinations, or cortical blindness inter Apperceptive visual agnosia: unable to perceive objects despite integrable acuity Associative visual agnosia: unable to recognize object as a result of impaired memory or inability to access semantic knowledge Prosopagnosia: caused by lesions at Junction of occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes; inability to recognize faces |
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Two theories of color vision |
1. Trichromatic Theory: three types of color receptors - red, blue, green - all other colors produced by variations of three receptors 2. Opponent - process Theory: 3 bipolar receptors - red / green, yellow /blue, and white / black - overall pattern of stimulation of cells produces various colors that we perceive - supported by negative after images |
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Color blindness |
Result of genetic defect that affects one or more of the three types of cones Can also be caused by damage to the retina, optic nerve, or other part of visual system Males affected more than females due to defect of X chromosome |
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Depth perception |
Depends on combination of binocular and monocular cues enter - binocular cues: convergence and retinal disparity, are responsible for depth perception of objects at relatively close distances - convergence: turning inward of eyes as object gets closer and vice versa Retinal disparity: two eyes see objects in the world from two different views, the closer the object the greater the disparity of the two images |
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Gate control theory of pain |
Nervous system can process only limited amount of sensory information at any one time When too much information is received, spinal cord act as a gate that block incoming pain signals Phenomena that can close the gate include massage, heat or cold, and distraction |
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Synesthesia |
Rare condition in which stimulation of one sensory modality trigger sensation in another sensory modality |
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Three psychophysical laws |
Study of relationship between physical stimulus magnitudes and corresponding psychological Sensations Absolute threshold: minimum stimulus needed to produce sensation Difference threshold: smallest increment in stimulus intensity needed to recognize discrepancy between two stimuli 1. Weber's law: just noticeable difference between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli 2. Fechner's law: subjective sensation is proportional to logarithm of stimulus intensity; mathematically formalized 3. Stevens power law: proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and its perceived intensity or strength |
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Learning and memory: Structures of the brain |
Temporal lobes: essential for encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories - right lobe: non verbal memory tasks - left lobe: verbal memory Hippocampus: Amygdala: fear conditioning and adding emotional significance Prefrontal cortex: episodic memory and prospective memory, constructive memory and false recognition - dorsolateral prefrontal cortex important for working memory Thalamus: processing incoming information and transfers it to the cortex - damage produces anterograde Amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation Basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex: procedural memory and implicit memory |
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Learning and memory: neural mechanisms |
Short term memory involves neurochemical changes at existing synapses Long term memory entails increase in number of synapses and modifications to the structure of existing synapses - long-term potentiation: greater responsivity of postsynaptic neuron to low-intensity stimulation by a presynaptic neuron after presynaptic neuron has been barraged by high-frequency stimulation; mediates long-term memory by causing changes in number of cells dendrites - protein synthesis: long term memory seems to depend on enhanced protein synthesis following learning or training |
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Language: brain asymmetry |
Left hemisphere usually dominant Right hemisphere participates in production and comprehension of language If left hemisphere is lost early in development or damaged in adulthood then right hemisphere assumes functions to some degree Right hemisphere capable of some comprehension Injury to right May produce subtle linguistic impairments |
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Broca's aphasia |
AKA expressive, Moto, and nonfluent aphasia answer Broca's area located in the dominant frontal lobe, usually left Speak slowly and with great difficulty Poorly articulated and lacks intonation, stressed, and rhythm |
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Wernicke's aphasia |
Receptive, impressive aphasia Located in left temporal lobe Trouble understanding written and spoken language Unable to generate meaningful language Unaware that speech is meaningless |
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Conduction aphasia |
Occurs when structure connecting Wernicke's area and Broca's area is damaged Does not affect language comprehension that results in paraphasia and impaired repetition |
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Transcortical aphasia |
Lesions outside Broca's and Wernicke's areas that disconnect of these from other regions of the brain Transcortical motor aphasia: Broca's area is isolated, nonfluent effortful speech, lack of spontaneous speech, anomia Transcortical sensory aphasia: Wernicke's area is isolated, deficits and comprehension, anomia, and fluent speech but unimpaired repetition Mixed transcortical aphasia: Broca's and Wernicke's both affected, talk but have nothing to say, unable to understand written and spoken language , can produce automatic responses |
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Global aphasia |
Caused by widespread brain injury involving Broca's and Wernicke's areas as well as other areas in left frontal temporal and parietal lobes Extensive disruption to production and understanding of language Often accompanied by right hemiplegia, right Hemi sensory loss, and right hemianopia |
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4 theories of emotion |
1. James - Lange theory: stresses importance of peripheral factors, emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli - you're afraid because your knees are shaking - studies of quadriplegic and paraplegic report less intense emotions after injuries 2. Canon - Bard Theory: greater emphasis on brain mechanisms, emotional and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously as a result of Thalamus stimulation of Cortex and peripheral nervous system - bodily reactions are fairly similar for all emotions 3. 2 Factor Theory: emotions are consequence of combination of physiological and cognitive interpretation and the environmental context in which it occurs - the epinephrine study 4. Cognitive appraisal Theory: - primary appraisal refers to evaluation of situation as irrelevant , depends on individual beliefs and values - secondary appraisal evaluation of resources person has to cope in a stressful situation - reappraisal when person monitor the situation and modifies appraisals |
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Emotion: brain mechanisms |
Papez's circuit: includes hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior nuclei of Thalamus, cingulate gyrus 1. Cerebral cortex: - left government happiness and other positive emotions, damaged produces catastrophic reactions such as severe depression, anxiety, depression and paranoia - write mediate sadness, fear, other negative emotions, damage results in indifference, Amity, liability, and undo cheerfulness - right hemisphere is dominant for recognition and expression of emotion 2. Amygdala: attaches emotion to memory, evaluate sensory information, determines emotional importance, and mediates response to information 3. Hypothalamus: influences ANS and pituitary gland , involved in translation of emotions into physical responses |
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Stress |
General Adaptation Syndrome: adrenal and pituitary glands, three stages 1. Alarm reaction: hypothalamus activates Adrenal medulla, releases epinephrine , glucose level rises and heart and respiration respiration rates accelerate 2. Resistance: breathing and heart rate returns to normal levels, hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone , activate the adrenal cortex to release cortisol 3. Exhaustion: with prolonged stress the pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex lose ability to maintain elevated hormone levels, physiological processes break down, fatigue, depression, and illness may occur |
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Sexual dimorphism |
Human brain is sexually dimorphic Sex-related differences in physical appearance Brain Imaging techniques find sex-related differences in size of certain regions of the brain including the corpus callosum, hippocampus + scn related to differential exposure to androgens during prenatal and postnatal development |
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Puberty |
Secondary sex characteristics: development occurs when hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate anterior pituitary gland and releases gonadotropic hormones Hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis: process that stimulates puberty |
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Menopause |
Cessation of menstruation enter Late forties early fifties Hormone replacement therapy: reduces negative effects of menopause, altering estrogen only or both estrogen and progesterone |
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Five stages of sleep |
Beta waves: alert, fully awake Alpha Waves: awake, arrested, relaxed Theta waves: deep relaxation, light sleep Delta waves: deep sleep Sleep stages 1 through 4 are non-rem sleep Stage 1 Alpha Waves replaced by theta waves Stage 2 theta waves predominate but are interrupted by birth of sleep spindles Stage 3 large slow delta waves appear Stage 3 large slow Delta waves up here stage 4 aka deep sleep Delta waves dominate Stage 5 REM sleep |
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Sleep patterns over the lifespan |
Infants begin with REM sleep and gradually change to non rim Newborn on RAM predominated by slow wave activity First four stages of non-rem sleep not distinguishable until 6 months of age |
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TBI |
Temporary or permanent impairment in cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and or physical functioning - closed head injury brain may be affected by hemorrhage, alteration or Loc - open head injury: does not usually have loss of consciousness and produces more localized damage Post-traumatic amnesia: post-injury anterograde amnesia coma duration is good predictor of Persistence of symptoms caused Retrograde amnesia: recent memory is affected more than remote memory |
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Post-concussion syndrome |
Pattern of somatic and psychological symptoms of up to 50% of people who experience mild brain injury Symptoms colon headache, dizziness, nausea, blurred vision, and drowsiness Tinnitus, cognitive impairment especially in memory attention concentration and information processing speed Diffuse axonal injury is primary organic Factor Psychological factors include subjective interpretation of injury Receive DSM-5 diagnosis of major or mild neurocognitive disorder due to TBI |
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Cerebrovascular accident |
AKA stroke Disruption in blood supply to brain thrombosis, embolism, and hemorrhage Risk factors are hypertension and atherosclerosis , diabetes mellitus, smoking, and age |
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Stroke symptoms |
Middle cerebral artery: contralateral hemiplegia and hemiparesis, Aphasia, apraxia and sensory neglect Posterior cerebral artery: contralateral homonymous hemianopia, memory loss, blindness, visual agnosia Anterior cerebral artery: contralateral hemiplegia, gate apraxia, depression, confusion, impaired judgment and inside, blower bowel and bladder incontinence, mutism |
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Huntington's disease |
Inherited degenerative disease Offspring have 50% chance of developing disorder, diagnosed between ages 30 and 50 Depression, apathy, anxiety, antisocial Tendencies, forgetfulness begin first Fidgeting and clumsiness Facial grimaces and piano playing movements Deficits and planning, problem solving, and decision-making, eventually dementia |
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Parkinson's disease |
Progressive degeneration of dopamine-producing cells in substantia nigra Exposure to herbicides, pesticides, toxins over extended period may play a role Positive symptoms: tremor, akathisia |
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Seizures |
Types: - generalized seizures: not focal onset, tonic - clonic seizure AKA Grand Mall include tonic stage or muscles contract and body stiffens and chronic stage involves rhythmic shaking of Limbs, absence seizures: AKA petit Mall brief attacks involving loc without prominent motor symptoms - partial seizures: one side of the brain , two main types simple do not involve loc while complex entail alteration in consciousness |
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Symptoms of seizure |
Temporal lobe: automatisms, hallucinations, happiness, other alteration and emotion, Deja Vu, autonomic signs , changes in personality Frontal lobe: motor symptoms, speech arrest, olfactory hallucinations, autonomic symptoms Parietal lobe: unusual physical Sensations on opposite side of body Occipital lobe: strange colors, visual phenomena, rapid eye blinking |
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Disorders of the endocrine system |
1. Pituitary gland: secretes several hormones including antidiuretic hormone and somatogropic hormone - adh in kidneys to mediate fluid retention, hyposecretion of ADH produces diabetes insipidus 2. Thyroid gland: hyperthyroidism - this is characterized by speeding up metabolism, elevated body temperature, heat intolerance, increased appetite with weight loss, education, liability, insomnia AKA Graves disease; hypothyroidism - slowed metabolism, reduced appetite with weight gain, slowed heart rate, low body temperature, lethargy, depression, decreased libido, impaired concentration and memory 3. Pancreas: hypoglycemia - Hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, anxiety, confusion; diabetes mellitus |
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Drug effects |
Agonists: produces similar effects as a neurotransmitter Inverse Agonist: produces opposite effect Partial Agonist: effects that are similar but less than effects produced by neurotransmitter antagonist: no activity in the cell or on home but reduce or block effects of neurotransmitter |
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Antipsychotics |
Traditional: effective for alleviating psychotic psychotic symptoms often prescribed as treatment for schizophrenia, acute Mania, hallucinations associated with MDD - less effective for negative symptoms - blocks dopamine receptors, dopamine hypothesis: schizophrenia is related to overactivity of dopamine receptors - side effects: anticholinergic effects including dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, tachycardia, delayed ejaculation; tardive dyskinesia , neuroleptic malignant syndrome: rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms including muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness must stop drug as soon as NMS develops Atypical: used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders with psychotic symptoms - clozapine useful in treating bipolar, symptoms of Huntington's disease, Parkinson's, drug addiction - alleviate both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia - act on D4 and other dopamine receptors and serotonin and glutamate - side effects: anticholinergic effects, sedation, lower seizure threshold, less likely to cause tardive dyskinesia |
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Tricyclics |
Type of antidepressant Amitriptyline, Nortriptyline, Doxepin, imipramine, clomipramine Treat depression involving decreased appetite and weight loss sleep disturbance anhedonia Panic disorder, agoraphobia, bulimia, OCD Blocks reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin, or dopamine Side effects: cardiovascular symptoms such as tachycardia, palpitations, hypertension, severe hypotension, cardiac arrhythmia Overdose: impaired concentration, Ataxia, education, cardiac arrhythmia, delirium, senior, Colma |
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Ssris |
Treats depression that are particularly effective for melancholic depression block reuptake of Serotonin Less cardiotoxic, safer an overdose, less likely to produce cognitive impairment |
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MAOI |
Most effective for treating non endogenous and atypical depression that involves anxiety comma reversed vegetative symptoms, interpersonal sensitivity Inhibit enzyme monoamine oxidase, involved in deactivating norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin Side effects: hypertensive crisis - occurs when taken in conjunction with barbiturates, and feta means, antihistamines, or with foods containing tyramine symptoms include stiff neck, nausea, rapid heart rate, severe headache, sensitivity to light |
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2 true mood stabilizers |
Lithium: - classic bipolar - mode of action not well understood, related to reuptake of Serotonin and norepinephrine - side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, metallic taste and weight gain - toxicity can result in seizures, coma, and death Carbamazepine: - initially used as anticonvulsant - Treats bipolar disorder when people have not responded to lithium - most effective or rapid cyclers - mode of action not well understood, believed to affect serotonin levels - side effects: dizziness anorexia and rash - - do not use with cardiac problems |
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Barbiturates |
Barbitals Used as sedatives and anesthetic In frequently prescribed now Interrupt impulses to reticular activating system |
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Benzodiazepines |
Most widely prescribed psychiatric medication Used to relieve anxiety but also treat sleep disturbance and alcohol withdrawal stimulate inhibitory action of Gaba Side effects: drowsiness dizziness lethargy Ataxia impaired psychomotor ability heritability paradoxical excitation or education Promote psychological dependence |
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Beta blockers |
Propanolol Used to treat high blood pressure angina and other cardiovascular disorders Reduce physical symptoms of anxiety Block beta adrenergic receptors which respond to epinephrine and norepinephrine answer Side effects: bradycardia shortness of breath diarrhea |
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Psychostimulants |
Amphetamines and Methylphenidate Potentiate release of norepinephrine and dopamine Block the reuptake Side effects: restlessness insomnia poor appetite palpitation arrhythmia Can lead to dependence Prolonged use of amphetamine can resemble paranoid schizophrenia |
