Philosophy 150 Final

Front 1

Conditional Argument

Back 1

Any argument having one or more conditional sentences in it, either as premises or as the conclusion or as both.

EX: if I lie in the sun too long then I get a sunburn.

I lie in the sun too long, therefore I get a sunburn

Front 2

Simple sentence

Back 2

One that does not have another sentence as one of its parts

EX: “today is Wednesday” or “the test is tomorrow”

- neither one of these sentences has another complete sentence as one of its parts

Front 3

Compound sentence

Back 3

One that contains (Atleast) one other complete sentence as one of its parts

EX: “if today is Wednesday, then the test is tomorrow”

Front 4

Affirming the antecedent

Back 4

(Modus ponens) an argument where one premise is a conditional sentence, the other affirms the antecedent of the conditional

EX: P1 if I drop it, then it will break (if p, then q)

P2 I dropped it (p)

C therefore, it’s broken (q)

Front 5

Denying the consequent

Back 5

An argument where one premise is a conditional sentence, the other denies the consequent

EX:

P1 if I drop it, then it will break (if p, then q)

P2 it isn’t broken (not q)

C therefore, I didn’t drop it (not p)

Front 6

Deductive fallacies

Back 6

Any argument form, represented as valid, where the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion

Front 7

Affirming the consequent

Back 7

An argument where one premise is a conditional sentence, the other affirms the consequent

EX: P1 if I drop it, then it will break (if p then q)

P2 it’s broken (q)

C therefore, I dropped it (p)

Front 8

Denying the antecedent

Back 8

An argument where one premise is a conditional sentence, the other denies the antecedent

EX: P1 if I drop it, then it will break (if p then q)

P2 I didn’t drop it (not p)

C therefore, it isn’t broken (not q)

Front 9

Conjunctions

Back 9

Compound sentences formed by using the word “and”

Front 10

Disjunctions

Back 10

Compound sentences formed by using the word “or”

Front 11

Disjunctive syllogisms

Back 11

A 3 lined argument (2 premises and 1 conclusion) where one of the premises is a disjunction (an “or” sentence) and the other premise denies one of the disjuncts (one of the alternatives stated in the “or” sentence); the conclusion states that therefore the other disjunct is true

Front 12

Negations

Back 12

Compound sentences formed by placing the words “it is not the case that” before any sentence; “not” sentence

Front 13

Biconditionals

Back 13

Compound sentences formed using he phrase “if and only if”

Front 14

Hypothetical syllogisms

Back 14

Any syllogism (3 line argument with 2 premises and one conclusion) where all of its sentences are conditionals

EX:

If grandma comes, then she’ll make the stuffing (if p, then q)

If grandma makes the stuffing, then thanksgiving will be great (if q, then r)

If grandma comes, then thanksgiving will be great (if p, then r)

Front 15

Dilemmas

Back 15

Conditional Arguments where one premise states alternatives

Front 16

Constructive dilemmas

Back 16

These have two conditional premises, a third premise that affirms one or the other of the antecedents, and a conclusion that states that one or the other of the consequences is therefore true

Front 17

Destructive dilemmas

Back 17

These have two conditional premises, a third premise that denies one or the other of the consequent, and a conclusion that states that one or the other of the antecedents is therefore false

Front 18

Simplification

Back 18

An argument where the premise is a conjunction - an “and” sentence- and where the conclusion is one of the conjuncts - one of the things joined together using “and”; if two simple sentences are true when compounded - joined using the word “and”- then they are each true individually

Front 19

Logical addition

Back 19

If a sentence is true, then a disjunction - an “or” sentence- made up of it an any other sentence, whether that other sentence is true or false, is always going to be a true sentence

Front 20

Sentenial Logic

Back 20

“Not” , “like” , “and” , “or”

Front 21

Exclusive sense of “or”

Back 21

Alive - or - dead sense

Front 22

Inclusive sentence of “or”

Back 22

Cream - or - sugar sense

Front 23

Material conditional

Back 23

When the expression “if/then” is used as a truth functional connective

• = and

~ = not

V = or

-> = if/then

<-> = if and only if

Front 24

Truth table

Back 24

(P ~P) this chart, and the others like it

Front 25

Middle term

Back 25

Appears one time in each one of the premises but no where in the conclusion

Front 26

Distribution

Back 26

In categorical sentences, the subject and predicate either do, or do not, refer to all the members of a class. A term is distributed in a categorical sentence when that sentence says something about ever member of the class to which the term refers. If a term refers to an undefined # of the members of a class, then that term is not distributed.

U = niversal

S = ubject

N = egative

P = redicate

Front 27

The 5 rules for testing a categorical syllogism got validity

Back 27

1. The arguments middle term must be distributed at least once

2. If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it must also be distributed in its corresponding premise

3. At least one premise must be positive (an A or an sent.)

4. If a syllogism has a negative premise, then it must have a negative conclusion (& vise versa)

5. If both of the arguments premises are universal, then the conclusion must be universal as well (and vise Versa)

Front 28

Tautology

Back 28

Sentences that are true for every possible value of p and q; differently, when regardless of whether p and q are true or false the compound sentence formed from them is always true, then that compound sentence is a tautology

Front 29

Contradictions

Back 29

Sentences that are false for every possible value of p and q; differently, when regardless of whether p and q are true or false the compound sentence formed from them is always false, then that compound sentence is a contradiction

Front 30

Contingent sentence

Back 30

A compound sentence that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction, that is, one whose truth or falsity is contingent upon the truth or falsity of the simple sentences that make it up. Principle of the excluded middle: every sentence is either true or false

Front 31

Principle of contradiction

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No sentence is both true and false

Front 32

Categorical proposition

Back 32

Is one that talks about groups or classes of things, not about individuals. Such sentences have a certain structure, consisting of four parts: the quantified, the subject, the copula, and the predicate

Front 33

“A” sentence

Back 33

The subject is distributed; the predicate is not

Ex: “All critical thinking students are smart.” Since this sentence says something about all critical thinking students, that term is distributed. Since it does not say something about all smart people, that term is not distributed.

Front 34

“E” sentence

Back 34

Both the subject and the predicate are distributed

Ex: “no critical thinking instructor is normal.” This sentence says something about all critical thinking instructors - that none of them is normal- but also about all normal people - that none of them is a critical thinking instructor

Front 35

“I” sentence

Back 35

Neither the subject nor the predicate is distributed

Ex: “some dogs are brown.” All this days is that there is Atleast one brown dog. It says nothing about all dogs are about all the brown things.

Front 36

“E” sentence

Back 36

Both the subject and the predicate are distributed

Ex: “no critical thinking instructor is normal.” This sentence says something about all critical thinking instructors - that none of them is normal- but also about all normal people - that none of them is a critical thinking instructor

Front 37

“I” sentence

Back 37

Neither the subject nor the predicate is distributed

Ex: “some dogs are brown.” All this days is that there is Atleast one brown dog. It says nothing about all dogs are about all the brown things.

Front 38

Quantity of a sentence

Back 38

Refers to whether we’re talking about all or only some members of a group; the quantity of the sentence answers the question, “how much?” Does the sentence refer to every member of a group (all, no) or only some members (some are, some are not)?

Front 39

Quality of a sentence

Back 39

Per Teays, answers the question, “Are you asserting that something is or is not the case?”

Front 40

Square of opposition

Back 40

A diagram that shows the relationships among categorical sentences

Ex:

A - E

I - O

Front 41

Contraries

Back 41

(Relationship of A to E). Two sentences are contraries if they can’t both be true but they can both be false

Ex: “all dogs have brown fur” and “no dog has brown fur” can’t both be true, but both can be false (if some dogs have brown fur but others do not.)

Front 42

Sub-contraries

Back 42

(the relationship between I and O). Two sentences are sub-contraries if they can both be true but then can’t both be false. Is it possible for it to be true both that “some dogs have brown fur” (I) and that “some dogs do not have brown fur” (O)? Yes! The easiest way to appreciate why both can’t be fake is to realize that if both I and O were false then both A and E would have to be true, but since they are contraries they can’t, by definition, both be true

Front 43

Quality of a sentence

Back 43

Per Teays, answers the question, “Are you asserting that something is or is not the case?”

Front 44

Square of opposition

Back 44

A diagram that shows the relationships among categorical sentences

Ex:

A - E

I - O

Front 45

Contraries

Back 45

(Relationship of A to E). Two sentences are contraries if they can’t both be true but they can both be false

Ex: “all dogs have brown fur” and “no dog has brown fur” can’t both be true, but both can be false (if some dogs have brown fur but others do not.)

Front 46

Sub-contraries

Back 46

(the relationship between I and O). Two sentences are sub-contraries if they can both be true but then can’t both be false. Is it possible for it to be true both that “some dogs have brown fur” (I) and that “some dogs do not have brown fur” (O)? Yes! The easiest way to appreciate why both can’t be fake is to realize that if both I and O were false then both A and E would have to be true, but since they are contraries they can’t, by definition, both be true

Front 47

Subalterns

Back 47

(The relationship between A and I on one hand and between E and O on the other). That I is the subaltern of A and that O is the subaltern of E means that if A is true, then I must be true; if E is true, then O must be true

EX: if it’s true that all dogs have brown fur then it must be true that some dogs have fur; if it’s true that no dog has brown fur then it must be true that some dogs do not have brown fur

Front 48

Categorical syllogism

Back 48

A syllogism where both of the premises and the conclusion are categorical sentences- a syllogism made up entirely of A, E, I, and O sentences

EX:

All hamburgers are delicious (A sent.)

No slice of liver is delicious (E sent.)

Therefore, no hamburger is a slice of liver (E Sent.)

Front 49

Minor premise

Back 49

The premise containing the arguments minor term

Front 50

Major premise

Back 50

Of a categorical syllogism is the premise containing the arguments major term